Sovet Ittifoqining tashqi savdosi - Foreign trade of the Soviet Union

Ushbu maqola qismidir bir qator ustida
Sovet Ittifoqi siyosati
Sovet Ittifoqi gerbi 1.svg
 

Sovet tashqi savdosi da faqat kichik rol o'ynagan Sovet iqtisodiyoti. Masalan, 1985 yilda eksport va import har biri Sovet Ittifoqining atigi 4 foizini tashkil etdi yalpi milliy mahsulot. The Sovet Ittifoqi Bu past darajani saqlab qoldi, chunki u katta energiya va xom ashyo bazasini jalb qilishi mumkin edi va tarixiy jihatdan o'zini o'zi ta'minlash siyosatini olib bordi. Boshqa tashqi iqtisodiy faoliyat kiradi iqtisodiy yordam birinchi navbatda kam rivojlanganlarga foyda keltiradigan dasturlar O'zaro iqtisodiy yordam kengashi (COMECON) mamlakatlari Kuba, Mo'g'uliston va Vetnam.[1]

Sovet Ittifoqi o'zining tashqi iqtisodiy faoliyatining asosiy qismini kommunistik mamlakatlar bilan, xususan, amalga oshirgan mamlakatlari bilan olib bordi Sharqiy Evropa. 1988 yilda Sovet Ittifoqining sotsialistik mamlakatlar bilan savdosi Sovet tashqi savdosining 62 foizini tashkil etdi. 1965 yildan 1988 yilgacha. Bilan savdo Uchinchi dunyo Sovet Ittifoqi tashqi savdosining barqaror 10-15 foizini tashkil etdi. Sanoati rivojlangan G'arb bilan savdo, ayniqsa Qo'shma Shtatlar Sharq va G'arb o'rtasidagi siyosiy munosabatlar, shuningdek Sovet Ittifoqining qisqa muddatli ehtiyojlari ta'sirida o'zgarib turdi. 1970-yillarda, tinchlanish davrida G'arb bilan savdo sotsialistik mamlakatlar bilan savdo hisobiga muhim ahamiyat kasb etdi. 1980-yillarning boshlarida va o'rtalarida, super davlatlar o'rtasidagi munosabatlar yomon bo'lganida, Sovet Ittifoqining G'arb bilan savdosi Sharqiy Evropa bilan integratsiyani kuchaytirish foydasiga kamaydi.[1]

Sovet Ittifoqi savdosini amalga oshirish uslubi bir savdo sherigidan boshqasiga farq qiladi. Sovet G'arbning sanoatlashgan mamlakatlari bilan savdosi, bundan mustasno Finlyandiya Uchinchi dunyo davlatlarining aksariyati qattiq valyutada, ya'ni erkin konvertatsiya qilinadigan valyutada o'tkazildi. Rubl erkin konvertatsiya qilinmaganligi sababli Sovet Ittifoqi sovet tovarlarini yoki oltinlarini jahon bozorida qattiq valyutaga sotish orqali faqat qattiq valyutaga ega bo'lishi mumkin edi. Shuning uchun konvertatsiya qilinadigan valyutani ishlatadigan mamlakatlardan import hajmi Sovet Ittifoqi qattiq valyutaga eksport qilgan tovarlarning miqdoriga bog'liq edi. Barter, qarshi savdo, sanoat kooperatsiyasi yoki ikki tomonlama kliring kelishuvlari kabi muqobil hamkorlik usullariga ustunlik berildi. Ushbu usullar Finlyandiya, Comecon a'zolari, bilan tuzilgan bitimlarda ishlatilgan Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi, Yugoslaviya va Uchinchi dunyo mamlakatlari qatori.[1]

Sovet savdosining tovar tarkibi mintaqalar bo'yicha farq qiladi. Sovet Ittifoqi sotsialistik mamlakatlardan energiya va sanoat mahsulotlari evaziga ishlab chiqarilgan, qishloq xo'jaligi va iste'mol tovarlarini import qildi. Sovet Ittifoqi sanoati rivojlangan G'arbga yoqilg'i va boshqa birlamchi mahsulotlarni eksport qilish orqali qattiq valyutani ishlab topdi va keyinchalik ushbu valyutadan zamonaviy ishlab chiqarish va qishloq xo'jaligi mahsulotlarini, birinchi navbatda, don sotib olish uchun foydalandi. Uchinchi dunyo bilan savdo odatda tropik oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari va xom ashyoga texnika va qurol-aslaha almashishni o'z ichiga oladi.[1]

Sovet yordam dasturlari 1965 yildan 1985 yilgacha barqaror ravishda kengayib bordi. 1985 yilda Sovet Ittifoqi Uchinchi dunyoga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri naqd pul, kredit berish yoki savdo subsidiyalari shaklida 6,9 milliard AQSh dollari miqdorida mablag 'ajratdi. Kommunistik Uchinchi dunyo, birinchi navbatda Kuba, Mo'g'uliston va Vetnam ushbu mablag'larning 85 foizini oldi. 1980-yillarning oxirida Sovet Ittifoqi yordam dasturlarini qayta ko'rib chiqdi. Kamaytirilgan siyosiy rentabellik va ichki iqtisodiy muammolar nuqtai nazaridan Sovet Ittifoqi cheklangan resurslari uchun samarasiz to'lovlarni amalga oshirishi mumkin edi. Bundan tashqari, Sovet iqtisodiy yordamidan norozi bo'lgan bir necha sovet mijoz-davlatlari G'arb davlatlari bilan savdo munozaralarini ochdilar.[1]

1980-yillarda Sovet Ittifoqi oziq-ovqat va asosiy vositalarni import qilish uchun to'lovlarni amalga oshirish va mijoz-davlatlarni qo'llab-quvvatlash uchun juda ko'p miqdordagi qattiq valyutaga muhtoj edi. Mamlakat o'z banklari orqali qarzga olingan eksportdan yoki oltinni sotishdan nimani ololmadi London, Frankfurt, Vena, Parij va Lyuksemburg. Katta don importi Sovet Ittifoqining qarzdorligini 1981 yilda ancha oshirib yubordi. Yaxshi hosil va past import talablari keyingi yillarda bu nomutanosiblikni bartaraf etdi. 1985 yil oxiriga kelib, a neft daromadlarining pasayishi deyarli Sovet qarzini 1981 yilgi darajasiga qaytardi. O'sha yilning oxirida Sovet Ittifoqi g'arbiy kreditorlarga, asosan tijorat banklari va boshqa xususiy manbalarga 31 milliard dollar (yalpi) qarzdor edi.[1]

1980-yillarning oxirida Sovet Ittifoqi G'arbdan importni qisqartirish va G'arbga neft va gaz eksportini ko'paytirish orqali qattiq valyutadagi qarzlarini kamaytirishga urindi. Shuningdek, u xalqaro bozorlar va tashkilotlarda faol ishtirok etishga intildi. 1987 yilda Sovet Ittifoqi rasmiy ravishda kuzatuvchi maqomini so'radi Tariflar va savdo bo'yicha bosh kelishuv va 1988 yilda normalizatsiya shartnomasini Evropa iqtisodiy hamjamiyati. Tashqi savdo byurokratiyasidagi tarkibiy o'zgarishlar, korxonalarni tanlash uchun to'g'ridan-to'g'ri savdo huquqlari va chet elliklar bilan qo'shma korxonalar tashkil etish to'g'risidagi qonunlar G'arbning bosh kotibi tomonidan belgilangan maqsadlarga erishish uchun zarur bo'lgan texnik va menejerlik ekspertizasiga iqtisodiyotni ochdi. Mixail Gorbachyov iqtisodiy qayta qurish dasturi (qayta qurish ).[1]

Tashqi savdo bo'yicha davlat monopoliyasining rivojlanishi

Sovet Ittifoqi hukumati har doim barcha tashqi savdo faoliyatida monopoliyani ushlab turdi, ammo vafotidan keyingina Jozef Stalin 1953 yilda hukumat tashqi savdo faoliyatiga ahamiyat bergan. Shu vaqtgacha Bolsheviklar tashqi iqtisodiy nazoratga mafkuraviy qarshilik, ularning Rossiyani to'lashdan bosh tortishi Birinchi jahon urushi qarzlar va betartiblik Rossiya fuqarolar urushi (1918-21) savdoni mamlakat sanoatining rivojlanishi uchun zarur bo'lgan minimal darajaga etkazdi. Sovet Ittifoqining faol savdo operatsiyalari faqat hukumat tashkil qilgan 1921 yilda boshlangan Tashqi savdo xalq komissarligi.[1]

1921 yildan boshlab, ichki va tashqi tashqi savdo bo'yicha komissarlikning monopoliyasi yumshatildi Yangi iqtisodiy siyosat (NEP) iqtisodiyotni markazlashmagan nazorat qilish. Komissariyat nazorat markazi bo'lib qolgan bo'lsa-da, rejim boshqa tovarlarni sotib olish va sotishda chet ellik sheriklar bilan bevosita muomala qilish uchun boshqa tashkilotlar tuzdi. Ushbu tashkilotlar tarkibiga davlat import va eksport idoralari, aksiyadorlik jamiyatlari, ixtisoslashgan import va eksport korporatsiyalari, trestlar, sindikatlar, kooperativ tashkilotlar va aralash mulkchilik kompaniyalari.[1]

NEP davrining oxiri, ning boshlanishi birinchi besh yillik reja (1928-32) va majbur kollektivlashtirish 1929 yildan boshlangan qishloq xo'jaligining dastlabki Stalin davri. Hukumat tashqi savdo operatsiyalarini 1930 yil fevralda chiqarilgan 358-sonli Farmonga binoan qayta qurdi, bu NEP davridagi markazlashmagan, asosan xususiy savdo amaliyotlarini bekor qildi va monopol ixtisoslashuv tizimini o'rnatdi. Shundan keyin hukumat tashqi savdo Xalq Komissarligi huzurida bir qator tashqi savdo korporatsiyalarini tashkil qildi, ularning har biri ma'lum tovar guruhi ustidan monopoliyaga ega edi.[1] 14-moddasida tashqi savdo monopoliyasi paydo bo'ldi 1936 yil Sovet konstitutsiyasi.

Stalin siyosati savdo-sotiqni qurishga urinish paytida uni cheklab qo'ydi sotsializm bitta mamlakatda. Stalin talab va narx o'zgarishi kabi tashqi bozor kuchlarining kutilmagan harakatidan va buzuvchi ta'siridan qo'rqardi. Import uchun zarur bo'lgan zavod uskunalari bilan cheklangan sanoatlashtirish birinchi besh yillik rejadan boshlangan haydovchi.[1] Ushbu uskuna kollektivlashtirilgan donni eksport qilish orqali to'langan.

Ikkinchi jahon urushi sovet savdosi va aksariyat tashqi savdo korporatsiyalarining faoliyati deyarli to'xtatildi. Savdo asosan Buyuk Britaniyadagi va Erondagi Sovet savdo vakillari va AQShdagi Sovet Xarid qilish Komissiyasi orqali amalga oshirildi. Urushdan keyin, Britaniya va boshqa G'arbiy Evropa davlatlari va Qo'shma Shtatlar Sovet Ittifoqi bilan savdoga keskin cheklovlar qo'ydi. Shunday qilib, Sovet tashqi savdo korporatsiyalari o'zlarining sa'y-harakatlarini Sharqiy Evropa va Xitoy bilan cheklab qo'ydilar, bu mamlakatlarda sovetlarga tegishli kompaniyalarni tashkil qildilar va juda qulay shartlarda aktsionerlik jamiyatlarini tuzdilar. Comecon, 1949 yilda tashkil etilgan bo'lib, Sharqiy Evropa iqtisodiyotini Sovet Ittifoqi bilan birlashtirdi.[1]

Sovet Ittifoqi savdosi Stalindan keyingi davrda ancha o'zgardi. Urushdan keyingi sanoatlashtirish va tashqi savdoning kengayishi natijasida tashqi savdo korporatsiyalarining yangi nomi bo'lgan va shuningdek tashqi savdo uyushmalari deb nomlanuvchi butun ittifoq tashqi savdo tashkilotlari (FTO) ko'payib ketdi. 1946 yilda Tashqi savdo Xalq Komissariyati qayta tashkil etildi Tashqi savdo vazirligi. Tashqi savdo vazirligi o'zining FTOlari orqali chet elliklar bilan muzokaralar olib borish va shartnomalar tuzish hamda tashqi savdo rejalarini tuzish bo'yicha eksklyuziv huquqni saqlab qoldi. 1955 yilda tashkil etilgan Tashqi iqtisodiy aloqalar davlat qo'mitasi (Gosudarstvennyi komitet po vneshnim ekonomicheskim sviaziam - GKES) barchasini boshqargan. tashqi yordam dasturlari va unga bo'ysungan FTOlar orqali to'liq zavodlarni eksport qilish. Biroq, ayrim vazirliklar o'zlarining FTOlari orqali to'g'ridan-to'g'ri xorijiy sheriklar bilan muomala qilish huquqiga ega edilar.[1]

1988 yil 17 yanvarda "Izvestiya" Tashqi savdo vazirligi va GKES tugatilganligi to'g'risida xabar berdi. Ushbu ikki tashkilot yangi tashkil etilgan Tashqi iqtisodiy aloqalar vazirligiga birlashtirildi, ular tashqi savdo siyosati va tashqi yordam shartnomalarini boshqarish uchun javobgardilar. Qo'shma korxonalarni tashkil etish to'g'risidagi boshqa qonun hujjatlarida. Sovet hukumati tashqi savdo byurokratiyasining soddalashtirilgan versiyasi orqali tashqi savdo bo'yicha monopoliyasini saqlab qoldi, chunki u 17 yanvardagi farmondan oldin mavjud edi.[1]

Tashqi savdo byurokratiyasining tuzilishi

1988 yilda tashqi savdo byurokratiyasi 1930 yildagi 358-sonli Farmon bilan yaratilgan monopol spetsifikatsiya tizimini aks ettirdi. Sovet Ittifoqi Kommunistik partiyasi (KPSS) va Vazirlar Kengashi, oltita markaziy organlar, Tashqi iqtisodiy aloqalar vazirligi va ko'plab FTOlar birgalikda barcha Sovet tashqi iqtisodiy faoliyatini rejalashtirgan, tartibga solgan, kuzatgan va amalga oshirgan.[1]

Ma'muriyat

KPSS barcha tashqi iqtisodiy faoliyat ustidan yuqori vakolatlarga ega bo'lsa-da, 1980 yillarning oxirida ma'muriy nazorat Vazirlar Kengashida markazlashtirildi. Aniqroq aytganda, kengash Davlat tashqi iqtisodiy komissiyasi vazirlik va idoralarning iqtisodiy va ilmiy hamkorlik sohasidagi faoliyatini sotsialistik, rivojlanayotgan va rivojlangan kapitalistik davlatlar bilan muvofiqlashtirgan.[1]

Ostida oltita markaziy organlar Vazirlar Kengashi tashqi iqtisodiy aloqalarda muhim rol o'ynadi. Mahsulotlar, xizmatlar va resurslarning importi va eksportini Davlat rejalashtirish qo'mitasi boshqargan (Davlat qo'mitasi – Gosplan ), Moddiy-texnika ta'minoti davlat qo'mitasi (Gosudarstvennyy komitet po material'no-texnicheskomu snabzheniiu – Gossnab ), va Fan va texnologiyalar bo'yicha davlat qo'mitasi (Gosudarstvennyi komitet po nauke i texnika - GKNT). Gosplan barcha import va eksport rejalarini ishlab chiqdi, investitsiyalar va boshqa resurslarni taqsimlashni muvofiqlashtirdi va tashqi savdoga oid barcha qarorlar, shu jumladan savdo darajasi va tovar tarkibi bo'yicha yakuniy vakolatlarga ega edi. Gossnab Gosplan tomonidan boshqarilmaydigan resurslarni taqsimlashni muvofiqlashtirdi va xaridorlar bilan ta'minotni moslashtirish uchun mas'ul bo'lgan markaziy agentlik sifatida importni tanlash va taqsimlashda katta rol o'ynadi. Sovet iqtisodiyotiga yangi texnologiyalarni joriy etish maqsadida GKNT texnik hamkorlik shartnomalari bo'yicha muzokaralar olib bordi va litsenziyalar va patentlarni sotib olish va sotishni nazorat qildi.[1]

The Narxlar bo'yicha davlat qo'mitasi (Gosudarstvennyi komitet po tsenam – Goskomtsen ), the Moliya vazirligi va Davlat banki (Gosudarstvennyi banki – Gosbank ) tashqi savdoni moliyalashtirish bo'yicha yurisdiksiyaga ega edi. Goskomtsen barcha import va ba'zi eksportlar uchun narxlarni o'rnatdi. Moliya vazirligi to'lov balansini nazorat qildi va tashqi savdoning davlat byudjetiga ta'sirini nazorat qildi. Nihoyat, Gosbank rubl uchun kursni o'rnatdi va Sovet Ittifoqi tarkibidagi almashinuv tizimini boshqardi. Gosbank Tashqi Iqtisodiy Faoliyat Bankiga rahbarlik qildi (Vneshnii ekonomicheskii banki – Vneshekonombank; 1988 yil 1 yanvargacha Sovet FTOlari uchun xalqaro bank xizmatlarini ko'rsatadigan Tashqi savdo banki deb nomlangan).[1]

Ishlash

1988 yilgacha tashqi iqtisodiy operatsiyalarda bevosita va bevosita ishtirok etgan ikkita tezkor organ GKES va Tashqi savdo vazirligi edi. Tashqi savdo vazirligi import va eksport rejalari va tartibga solinadigan tovar savdosi loyihalarini ishlab chiqdi. GKES tashqi yordam dasturlarini va to'liq o'simliklarni eksport qilishni nazorat qildi. Tashqi savdo vazirligi yoki GKES chet elliklar bilan alohida korxonalar nomidan muzokara olib, tijorat shartnomalari tuzgan ko'pgina FTOlar vakolatiga ega edi. FTOlar, odatda, 30-yillardagi tashqi savdo korporatsiyalari singari mahsulot bo'yicha tashkil qilingan.[1]

Ba'zi sanoat vazirliklari yoki boshqa idoralarda o'zlarining FTOlari mavjud edi. Masalan, 1987 yil boshidan boshlab qirq sakkizta FTO Tashqi savdo vazirligi va to'qqiztasi GKES tasarrufida, dengiz floti vazirligi, baliqchilik sanoati vazirligi va savdo vazirligi, shu jumladan boshqalar, o'zlarining FTOlariga ega edilar. Bundan tashqari, ayrim boshqa agentliklarda o'zlarining FTOlari mavjud edi: xalqaro savdo ko'rgazmalarini olib boradigan Savdo-sanoat palatasi; jismoniy tarbiya va sport davlat qo'mitasi; kooperativlarning Markaziy ittifoqi; nashriyotlar, bosmaxona o'simliklari va kitob savdosi bo'yicha davlat qo'mitasi; kinematografiya bo'yicha davlat qo'mitasi; va Fan va texnologiyalar bo'yicha davlat qo'mitasi.[1]

Tarkibiy islohotlar, 1986 yildan 1988 yil o'rtalariga qadar

Tashqi savdo byurokratiyasi tashqi savdoning samaradorligi va samaradorligiga to'sqinlik qiladigan bir qator muammolarni keltirib chiqardi. Sovet korxonalari va ularning chet ellik mijozlari yoki etkazib beruvchilari o'rtasida to'g'ridan-to'g'ri aloqaning yo'qligi shartnoma bo'yicha muzokaralarni va texnik tafsilotlarni spetsifikatsiyani kechiktirish bilan ikkala tomonni ham xafa qildi. Tashqi savdo vazirligining Texnik uskunalarni eksport qilish va import qilish bo'yicha Butunittifoq assotsiatsiyasining bosh direktori Boris K. Pushkin 1986 yil may oyida "Izvestiya" ga bergan intervyusida, korxona chet el buyumlari uchun so'rov yuborganidan so'ng, ikkitasi import rejasiga kiritilishidan va uni sotib olish uchun mablag 'ajratilishidan oldin uch yil talab qilingan. Vaqt oralig'ida korxona ehtiyojlari ko'pincha o'zgarib turardi. Pushkin korxonalarni keraksiz mayda nazorat va ortiqcha tartibga solishdan xalos qilish zarurligini ta'kidladi.[1]

Bunday muammolarni inobatga olgan holda, 1986 yil fevral-mart oylarida bo'lib o'tgan partiyaning Yigirma ettinchi qurultoyi, partiyaning "eksport va importni yanada samarali qilish uchun [mamlakatning] tashqi savdosini bosqichma-bosqich qayta qurishni kutayotganini" e'lon qildi. o'sha yili KPSS Markaziy Qo'mitasi va Vazirlar Kengashi "Tashqi iqtisodiy aloqalarni boshqarishni takomillashtirish chora-tadbirlari to'g'risida" farmon qabul qildilar, unda "tashqi savdo byurokratiyasi tuzilmasini o'zgartirish bo'yicha keskin qadamlar belgilab berildi.[1]

Shuningdek, 1986 yil avgustda Vazirlar Kengashining Davlat tashqi iqtisodiy komissiyasi kengash tarkibidagi doimiy faoliyat ko'rsatadigan organga aylanib, komissiyaga ko'proq vakolat va ko'rinishni berdi, uning ichki faoliyati ilgari deyarli xabar qilinmagan edi. Shtatlar ko'paytirildi va rais bosh vazir o'rinbosariga teng darajaga ega bo'ldi. Yangi nizomda komissiyaning vazifasi "mamlakatning tashqi iqtisodiy strategiyasini ishlab chiqish va uni jadallashtirishga potentsial hissa qo'shishi uchun amalga oshirish" ekanligi ta'kidlangan.uskorenie), Sovet Ittifoqining jahon iqtisodiyotidagi mavqeini mustahkamlash va barcha mamlakatlar guruhlari bilan iqtisodiy hamkorlikning tizimli va uyushgan rivojlanishiga ko'maklashish. "[1]

1987 yilgacha Tashqi savdo vazirligiga bo'ysunadigan qirq sakkizta FTO Sovet tashqi savdo aylanmasining 90 foizidan ko'pini boshqargan. 1987 yilda vazirlik Sovet tashqi savdo aylanmasining 20 foizini nazorat qilishni yo'qotdi. Hukumat yigirma bitta vazirlik va davlat qo'mitalariga, oltmish etti sanoat korxonalariga va sakkiz tarmoqlararo ilmiy ishlab chiqarish majmualariga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri tashqi savdo huquqlarini berdi. Eksport qiluvchi korxonalar valyuta tushumining bir qismini saqlab qolish huquqiga ega bo'lishdi. Har bir vazirlik yoki korxona investitsiya importi uchun o'z valyutasi bilan to'lashi kerak edi, vazirliklar va korxonalar rahbarlari valyutadagi mablag'lardan samarali foydalanish uchun shaxsan javobgar bo'ldilar. Ushbu chora-tadbirlar korxonalarga import bo'yicha qaror qabul qilishda ko'proq ta'sir ko'rsatdi.[1]

1987 yil 13 yanvarda Vazirlar Kengashi "Sovet Ittifoqi va xorijiy tashkilotlar, firmalar va boshqaruv organlari ishtirokidagi qo'shma korxonalar, xalqaro uyushmalar va tashkilotlar faoliyati to'g'risida, SSSR hududi va faoliyati to'g'risida masalalar to'g'risida" qaror qabul qildi. , "yoki sodda qilib aytganda, qo'shma korxonalar to'g'risida qonun. Ushbu qonunchilik Sovet Ittifoqi ichidagi korxonalarni o'sha paytdan beri birinchi marta ochdi Bolsheviklar inqilobi, xorijiy ishtirok etish uchun. Qo'shma korxonalar G'arb texnologiyalari, boshqaruv nou-xaulari va marketing qobiliyatlarini egallash va o'zlashtirishga yordam berishi kerak edi. Sovet mulozimlari o'zlarining yangi ishlarining iqtisodiy samaralariga optimistik munosabatda bo'lib, "eng muhim mashinasozlik turlari" ning 85-90 foizini 1990 yilgacha jahon texnik standartlariga javob berishini e'lon qilishdi. Sovet Ittifoqining ulkan tabiiy resurslari va uning daromadli, ilgari yopiq ichki bozori G'arb kompaniyalarini jalb qildi. 1988 yil avgustga qadar Sovet Ittifoqida ellikdan ziyod qo'shma korxona ro'yxatdan o'tkazildi va taxminan uch yuztasi muzokarada edi.[1]

Shunga qaramay, hukumat qo'shma korxonalar to'g'risidagi qonunni qabul qilganidan keyin birinchi o'n sakkiz oy ichida ko'plab to'siqlar paydo bo'ldi. G'arbiy sheriklarning shikoyatlarida Sovet savdo qoidalariga oid noaniqliklar, tovarlarni etkazib berish bilan bog'liq muammolar, konvertatsiya qilinmaydigan ikkilanish masalalari ko'rib chiqilgan. rubl, malakali sovet menejerlarini topishdagi qiyinchiliklar, ishlab chiqarish xarajatlarini prognoz qilishdagi muammolar (1989 yildagi Sovet ichki narxlari ma'muriy ravishda belgilandi va bozor sharoitlariga asoslanmagan) va hattoki Moskvada ofis joylarini topishdagi qiyinchiliklar. Sovet savdo mutasaddilarining ushbu shikoyatlarni qondirish bo'yicha harakatlari tashqi savdo byurokratiyasini markazsizlashtirish, Moskvada menejment institutini tashkil etish, narx islohotlari va turli huquqiy islohotlarni o'z ichiga olgan.[1]

G'arb ishbilarmonlari ushbu ketma-ket islohotlar natijasida yuzaga kelgan chalkashlik va buzilishlardan xalos bo'lishidan oldin, ikkinchi seriya 1988 yil boshida boshlandi. 1988 yil 1 yanvardan boshlab tashqi savdo banki (Vneshnii torgovii banki – Vneshtorgbank ) tashqi iqtisodiy faoliyat banki deb o'zgartirildi (Vneshnii ekonomicheskii banki – Vneshekonombank ). Ismning o'zgarishi bank majburiyatlarining jiddiy o'zgarishini anglatmadi, aksincha uning faoliyati mohiyatini aniqroq aks ettirdi. Vneshtorgbank valyuta, kredit va buxgalteriya xizmatlarini ko'rsatish uchun tashqi savdo operatsiyalarini oddiy boshqarish tizimidan ajralib chiqdi. Vneshekonombank avvalgi vazifalaridan o'zgargan holda yaqinda to'g'ridan-to'g'ri tashqi savdo huquqlarini olgan sovet firmalariga tegishli yangi protseduralarni boshqarishi kerak edi.[1]

Shuningdek, 1988 yil 1 yanvardan boshlab "Yangi korxona to'g'risida" gi qonun kuchga kirdi va 1989 yilga kelib korxonalar o'zlarining xo’jalik operatsiyalari uchun iqtisodiy javobgarlikka tortdilar. Ushbu qonunga binoan hukumat zararli korxonalarni tarqatib yuborish vakolatiga ega edi va har bir vazirlik va uning tasarrufidagi korxonalar qo’lga kiritdilar. o'zlarining tashqi savdo faoliyati uchun javobgarlik. Bundan tashqari, Gosplan, Gossnab va GKNT pul va mollarni ajratish bo'yicha ba'zi huquqlaridan voz kechishdi. Va nihoyat, o'n to'rtta qo'shimcha korxona va boshqa to'rtta vazirlik to'g'ridan-to'g'ri tashqi savdo huquqiga ega bo'lganda, tashqi savdo vazirligi tashqi savdo aylanmasining 15 foizga ko'proq qismini nazorat qilishni yo'qotdi.[1]

Shunga qaramay, tashqi savdo mexanizmidagi eng muhim o'zgarish 1988 yil 17 yanvarda, "Izvestiya" Tashqi savdo vazirligi va GKES tugatilishini e'lon qilganida yuz bergan. GKESning sobiq rahbari Konstantin F. Katushev boshchiligidagi Tashqi iqtisodiy aloqalar vazirligi ikkala idoraning vazifalarini o'z zimmalariga oldi. "Shunday qilib, tashqi savdo bo'yicha davlat monopoliyasi va uning umumiy jihatlari markazlashgan bo'lib qolmoqda", deb xabar beradi Sovet tashqi savdo har oy Vneshniaia torgovlia (Tashqi savdo), "operatsion funktsiyalar doimiy ravishda biznes darajasiga o'tkazilganda". 1988 yil mart oyida jurnal tashqi savdo aylanmasining taxminan 20 foizini chet elliklar bilan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri muomala qilish huquqiga ega bo'lgan sakson bitta firma tomonidan amalga oshirilganligini xabar qildi.[1]

1988 yil aprel oyida Markaziy Qo'mita va Vazirlar Kengashi Savdo-sanoat palatasining yangi nizomini kelishib olganidan keyin boshqa islohotlar amalga oshirildi. Umuman olganda, palata yangi Tashqi iqtisodiy aloqalar vazirligidan tashqarida olib borilayotgan tashqi savdo faoliyatini kuzatib bordi. Bundan tashqari, palata Sovet ishlab chiqarish korxonalariga g'arbiy sheriklarni topish va tashqi savdo amaliyotini o'rganishda yordam berdi.[1]

Sotsialistik mamlakatlar bilan savdo

1980-yillarning oxirida Sovet Ittifoqi o'n to'rtta sotsialistik mamlakat bilan savdo-sotiqni amalga oshirdi. Sovet Ittifoqi va ushbu mamlakatlar o'rtasidagi siyosiy va iqtisodiy munosabatlar ushbu mamlakatlarni ajratish mumkin bo'lgan to'rt guruhni belgilaydi: Komekon a'zolari; Yugoslaviya; Xitoy; rivojlanayotgan Kambodja, Laos va Koreya Xalq Demokratik Respublikasi (Shimoliy Koreya) rivojlanayotgan kommunistik mamlakatlar.[1]

Sotsialistik mamlakatlar bilan ishbilarmonlik eksportni muvozanatlashtiradigan mamlakatlararo ikki tomonlama asosda olib borildi. Sovet neftining ushbu mamlakatlarga eksporti mashinalar va uskunalar va sanoat iste'mol mollarini sotib oldi, shuningdek erkin konvertatsiya qilinadigan chet el valyutasini sarf qilmasdan siyosiy qo'llab-quvvatladi. Bundan tashqari, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri kreditlar yoki savdo subsidiyalari shaklida bo'lgan Sovet yordam dasturlari deyarli faqat sotsialistik mamlakatlarni qamrab olgan.[1]

O'zaro iqtisodiy yordam kengashi

Sovet Ittifoqi O'zaro iqtisodiy yordam kengashi (Comecon) 1949 yilda, qisman Sharqiy Evropa mamlakatlarini ishtirok etishni to'xtatish uchun Marshall rejasi Ikkinchi jahon urushidan keyin AQSh va Buyuk Britaniya va boshqa G'arbiy Evropa davlatlari tomonidan qo'yilgan savdo boykotlariga qarshi turish. Ko'rinishidan, Comecon Sovet Ittifoqi va a'zo davlatlar o'rtasidagi iqtisodiy va texnik hamkorlikni muvofiqlashtirish uchun tashkil etilgan. Aslida Sovet Ittifoqining Komekon faoliyatidagi hukmronligi uning iqtisodiy, siyosiy va harbiy qudratini aks ettiradi. 1989 yilda Komekon o'nta mamlakatni o'z ichiga oldi: oltita asl a'zo - Bolgariya, Chexoslovakiya, Vengriya, Polsha, Ruminiya va Sovet Ittifoqi - ortiqcha Germaniya Demokratik Respublikasi (1950 yilda qo'shilgan Sharqiy Germaniya), Mo'g'uliston (1962), Kuba (1972) va Vetnam (1978). Albaniya, 1949 yil fevral oyida qo'shilgan bo'lsa-da, 1961 yildan beri Komekon faoliyatida qatnashmadi.[1]

1949 yildan boshlab Sovet Ittifoqi asosan boshqa Komekon a'zolari bilan savdo qiladi. 1960 yilda Sovet Ittifoqi eksportning 56 foizini yubordi va 58 foiz importini Komecon a'zolaridan oldi. O'sha vaqtdan boshlab ushbu savdo hajmi tobora o'sib bordi, ammo Sovet Ittifoqi G'arb sanoatlashgan mamlakatlar bilan savdoni ko'paytirishga intilayotganligi sababli Komekon a'zolari bilan Sovet savdosining ulushi kamaydi. 1960 yildan farqli o'laroq Comecon a'zolari bilan savdo Sovet eksportining atigi 42 foizini va 1980 yilda Sovet importining 43 foizini tashkil etdi.[1]

Komekonning evropalik a'zolari Sovet Ittifoqiga neft qidirishdi; o'z navbatida ular Sovet Ittifoqiga texnika, uskunalar, qishloq xo'jaligi mollari, sanoat mollari va iste'mol tovarlari etkazib berishdi. Komekon narxlash tizimining o'ziga xos xususiyatlaridan kelib chiqqan holda, 1970-yillar va 1980-yillarning boshlarida Sovet neftining Komekon narxi jahon neft narxlaridan past edi. G'arb mutaxassislari Comecon a'zolariga narxlarni subsidiyalashning siyosiy motivlarini muhokama qildilar. Komekon a'zolarining uyushqoqligi 1985 yilda jahon narxining pasayishi Komekon a'zolarini Sovet yog'i uchun bozordan yuqori narxlarda to'lashiga sabab bo'lganida ajoyib tuyuldi.[1]

Kuba, Mo'g'uliston va Vetnamning Komekonga a'zo bo'lishi Komekon a'zolarining iqtisodiy farovonligidan ko'ra ko'proq Sovet tashqi siyosiy manfaatlariga xizmat qildi. Umuman olganda, iqtisodiy jihatdan ancha rivojlangan Evropa a'zolari kam rivojlangan uchta a'zoni o'zlarining eksporti uchun katta bozorni, ko'pincha bozor narxlaridan yuqori narxlarda ta'minlash orqali qo'llab-quvvatladilar. Kubaning aksariyat shakar va nikellari va Mo'g'ulistonning barcha mis va molibdenlari Sovet Ittifoqi tomonidan import qilingan. Bundan tashqari, Sovet Ittifoqi Kuba va Vetnamda dengiz va havo bazalarini tashkil etdi.[1]

1985 yildan beri Gorbachyov Komekon a'zolari bilan savdoni ko'paytirishni talab qilmoqda. 1986 yil fevral oyida bo'lib o'tgan partiyaning yigirma ettinchi s'ezdida u ham, bosh vazir ham Nikolay Rijkov Komeconning 2000 yilgacha bo'lgan ilmiy-texnikaviy hamkorlikning keng qamrovli dasturi asosida sotsialistik mamlakatlar bilan hamkorlikni takomillashtirish zarurligini ta'kidladi. Ushbu dastur Komekon mamlakatlarining beshta asosiy yo'nalishda o'z-o'zini ta'minlashini ta'kidladi: elektronika, ishlab chiqarishni avtomatlashtirish, yadro. quvvat, biotexnologiya va yangi xom ashyolarni ishlab chiqarish. Shuningdek, Sovet Ittifoqiga eksport qilinadigan reja koordinatsiyasini, qo'shma rejalashtirishni, Komecon investitsiya strategiyasini, ishlab chiqarishni ixtisoslashtirishni va mashina va uskunalarning sifatini yaxshilashni talab qildi.[1]

Yugoslaviya

1964 yilda Yugoslaviya Comecon bilan rasmiy hamkorlik shartnomasini muhokama qildi. Ushbu munosabatlar Yugoslaviyaga Komekonning to'laqonli a'zosining deyarli barcha huquq va imtiyozlarini qo'lga kiritgan holda, o'zining notekis pozitsiyasini saqlab qolish imkoniyatini berdi. 1980-yillarda Sovet Ittifoqining Yugoslaviya bilan savdo aloqalari Komekonning to'laqonli a'zolari bilan bo'lgan munosabatlariga o'xshardi. Sovet Ittifoqi Yugoslaviyaga yoqilg'i, qora metall, plastmassa va o'g'it eksport qildi. Yugoslaviyaning dastgohsozlik, elektrotexnika, kema qurilishi va iste'mol tovarlari sanoat korxonalari Sovet Ittifoqini yumshoq valyutadagi mahsulotlar bilan ta'minladi.[1]

70-yillarning oxiri va 80-yillarning boshlarida Fors ko'rfazidagi jangovar harakatlar Iroq neftini etkazib berishni to'xtatganligi sababli Yugoslaviya Sovet neftiga ko'proq bog'liq bo'lib qoldi. Bundan tashqari, 1970 yildan 1980 yillarga qadar Sovet Ittifoqi bilan real savdo rejalangan savdo hajmidan oshib ketdi. Shunday qilib, 1983 yilda Yugoslaviya hukumati Sovet Bosh vaziriga xabar berdi Nikolay Tixonov 1980-yillarning o'rtalarida - oxirlarida Sovet Ittifoqi bilan savdoni kamaytirish istagi. 1981 yildan 1985 yilgacha Yugoslaviya tomonidan to'plangan ulkan valyuta qarzi tufayli Sovet Ittifoqi 1980 yillarning oxirlarida eng muhim savdo sherigi bo'lib qoldi. Darhaqiqat, poyafzal kabi ba'zi Yugoslaviya mahsulotlari uchun Sovet Ittifoqi yagona xorijiy xaridor edi.[1]

Xitoy

50-yillarda Sovet Ittifoqi Xitoy tashqi savdosining yarmini o'z zimmasiga oldi. Ikki mamlakat o'rtasida 1950-yillarning oxirlarida paydo bo'lgan siyosiy kelishmovchilik 1960 yilda Xitoydan 1000 dan ortiq sovet mutaxassislarining chiqib ketishi va 1964 yilda savdo munosabatlaridagi rasmiy tanaffus bilan yakunlandi. Bu faqat kuzatuvchi bo'lib kelgan bo'lsa-da, Xitoy Komikon sessiyalarida qatnashishni to'xtatdi. 1961 yilda Sovet Ittifoqi va Xitoy o'rtasidagi iqtisodiy aloqalar 1982 yilda tiklandi. Asosan Sovet Ittifoqi natijasida siyosiy imtiyozlar va xitoyliklarning tijoratni kengaytirishga bo'lgan tazyiqlari, ikki davlat o'rtasidagi savdo hajmi 1982-1987 yillarda o'n baravar oshdi.[1]

1980-yillarda Sovet Ittifoqi Xitoy uchun ideal savdo sherigi ekanligini isbotladi. Xitoyning eksporti jahon bozorida raqobatbardosh emas edi va uning valyuta zaxiralari 1984 va 1985 yillarda tashqi savdo rekord darajada defitsit bilan tugatildi. Xuddi shu tarzda Sovet Ittifoqi ham sanoati rivojlangan mamlakatlarda bozorga chiqarilishi qiyin bo'lgan eskirgan texnologiyalarni ishlab chiqaradi. o'sib borayotgan qattiq valyuta qarzi, Xitoy bozorini ishtiyoq bilan ta'qib qildi. Har bir davlat boshqa bozorda sota olmaydigan boshqa tovarlarni sotar edi va har biri kamyob valyutani ayirboshlash yo'li bilan saqlab qolishi mumkin edi. Sovet Ittifoqi Xitoyga yoqilg'i-mineral xom ashyo resurslari va energetika, transport va metallurgiya sanoatini rivojlantirishga yordam beradigan texnika, uskunalar va texnik bilimlarga ega edi. Xitoy ko'plab xom ashyo, to'qimachilik va qishloq xo'jaligi va sanoat iste'mol tovarlarini taklif qilishi mumkin.[1]

Rivojlangan iqtisodiy munosabatlar Sovetlarning turli siyosiy va ma'muriy to'siqlarni engishdagi moslashuvchanligini aks ettirdi. 1988 yil o'rtalarida Gorbachyov Xitoy chegarasida Sovet qo'shinlarini qisqartirish haqida gapirar edi, Vetnam Kambodjadan o'z qo'shinlarining yarmini olib tashladi va Sovet qo'shinlari ularni olib chiqishni boshladilar Afg'oniston. Sovet tashqi savdo kompleksini isloh qilish natijasida Sovet Uzoq Sharqida va Sovet Markaziy Osiyoda erkin savdo zonalari tashkil etilib, ikki mamlakat o'rtasidagi chegara savdosi soddalashtirildi. Sovet savdo amaldorlari xitoyliklarni ishbilarmonlik aloqalarini chegara savdosidan tashqari qo'shma korxonalar, qo'shma ishlab chiqarish shartnomalari va ortiqcha ishchi kuchini Sovet Ittifoqiga eksport qilishga kengaytirishga ishontirdilar. Moskvadagi xitoy oshxonasiga ixtisoslashgan Peking restorani Sovet Ittifoqi va Xitoy o'rtasidagi birinchi qo'shma korxona bo'ldi. 1988 yil aprelda Xitoy tashqi iqtisodiy aloqalar va savdo vaziri, Zheng Tubin, Xitoy Sovet Ittifoqi bilan savdoni "tez sur'atlarda" davom ettirishni davom ettirishini ta'kidladi va shu bilan Sovet Ittifoqining Xitoy bilan savdoni kengaytirishdagi qat'iyatliligini mukofotladi.[1]

Kambodja, Laos va Shimoliy Koreya

Komekon bo'lmagan kommunistik davlatlar bilan Sovet iqtisodiy aloqalari yordam va savdo shaklida amalga oshirildi. 1987 yilda Sovet yordamining taxminan 85 foizi kommunistik Uchinchi dunyoga to'g'ri keldi. Hozirgacha ushbu mablag'larning eng katta qismini Kuba, Mo'g'uliston va Vetnam o'zlashtirgan. Qolganlari Kambodja, Laos va Shimoliy Koreyaga qoldirildi. Sovet yordami garovlari 1985 yildan 1988 yilgacha barqaror ravishda oshib bordi va to'g'ridan-to'g'ri yordam va savdo subsidiyalari o'rtasida teng taqsimlandi. Tovar birjasi Sovet Ittifoqining Laos rudalari va konsentrlangan metallar, Shimoliy Koreyaning qora metall prokatlari va ishchi kuchi hamda Kambodja kauchuklari evaziga texnika, yoqilg'i va transport uskunalari bilan ta'minlanishi bilan ajralib turardi.[1]

G'arbiy sanoat rivojlangan mamlakatlar bilan savdo

G'arb sanoatlashgan mamlakatlarga AQSh, Kanada, G'arbiy Evropa, Avstraliya va Yangi Zelandiya kiradi. Finlyandiyadan tashqari, sanoati rivojlangan mamlakatlar bilan Sovet savdosi naqd pul yoki kredit asosida to'lanadigan oddiy xaridlardan, bir tovarni boshqasiga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri almashtirishdan iborat edi (Pepsi-kola uchun Stolichnaya masalan, aroq) yoki Sovet Ittifoqida zavodlarni qurish yoki ishlatishda xorijiy firmalar ishtirok etgan sanoat kooperatsiyasi shartnomalari. Keyingi holatlarda to'lovlar yangi o'simliklarni ishlab chiqarish shaklida amalga oshirildi. Buning farqli o'laroq, o'sha paytda konvertatsiya qilinadigan valyutaga ega bo'lmagan Finlyandiya bilan savdo, xuddi Comecon sheriklari bilan Sovet savdosi singari, ikki tomonlama kliring shartnomalari orqali amalga oshirildi.[1]

1970-80-yillarda Sovet Ittifoqi qattiq valyuta topish uchun turli xil yoqilg'i eksportlariga tayanar edi va G'arb sheriklari Sovet Ittifoqini neft va tabiiy gazning nihoyatda ishonchli etkazib beruvchisi deb hisoblashardi. 80-yillarda Sovet Ittifoqi eksport uchun ko'proq neft zaxiralarini bo'shatish uchun gaz, ko'mir va atom energetikasiga ustuvor ahamiyat berdi. Buning sababi ishlab chiqarish xarajatlari oshishi va konvertatsiya qilinadigan valyutaning zararlar natijasida kelib chiqadigan zararlaridir jahon neft narxining pasayishi. Uy va eksport uchun tabiiy gazni ishlab chiqarishni rivojlantirish ham ushbu omillar bilan rag'batlantirildi. 1970-1986 yillarda tabiiy gaz eksporti G'arbga Sovet Ittifoqi eksportining 1 foizidan 15 foizigacha ko'tarildi.[1]

Sovet mahsulotlarining sifati pastligi sababli Sovet Ittifoqi ishlab chiqarilgan mahsulotlar eksportini ko'paytirishda muvaffaqiyatsizlikka uchradi. 1987 yilda Sovet ishlab chiqargan mahsulotlarning atigi 18 foizi jahon texnik talablariga javob beradi. As an illustration of these problems in quality, Canadian customers who had purchased Soviet Belarus tractors often found that the tractors had to be overhauled on arrival before they could be sold on the Canadian market. In 1986 less than 5 percent of Soviet exports to the West consisted of machinery. Other Soviet nonfuel exports in the 1990s included timber, exported primarily to Japan, and chemicals, the export of which grew substantially in 1984 and 1985.[1]

In the 1980s, Soviet imports from Western industrialized countries generally exceeded exports, although trade with the West decreased overall. One-half of Soviet agricultural imports were from developed countries, and these imports made up a considerable portion of total imports from the West. Industrial equipment formed one-quarter of Soviet imports from the West, and iron and steel products, particularly steel tubes for pipeline construction, made up most of the rest. Over the course of the 1980s, high-technology items gained in importance as well.[1]

In the 1970s and 1980s, Soviet trade with the Western industrialized countries was more dynamic than was Soviet trade with other countries, as trade patterns fluctuated with political and economic changes. In the 1970s, the Soviet Union exchanged its energy and raw materials for Western capital goods, and growth in trade was substantial. Soviet exports jumped 55 percent, and imports jumped 207 percent. The Soviet Union ran a trade deficit with the West throughout this period.[1]

In 1980 the Soviet Union exported slightly more to the West than it imported. After a temporary shortage of hard currency in 1981, the Soviet Union sought to improve its trade position with the industrialized countries by keeping imports at a steady level and by increasing exports. As a result, the Soviet Union began to run trade surpluses with most of its Western partners. Much of the income earned from fuel exports to Western Europe was used to pay off debts with the United States, Canada, and Australia, from which the Soviet Union had imported large quantities of grain.[1]

In 1985 and 1986, trade with the West was suppressed because of heightened East-West political tensions, successful Soviet grain harvests, high Soviet oil production costs, a devalued United States dollar, and falling oil prices. Despite increases in oil and natural gas exports, the Soviet Union's primary hard-currency earners, the country was receiving less revenue from its exports to the West. The Soviet Union sold most of its oil and natural gas exports for United States dollars but bought most of its hardcurrency imports from Western Europe. The lower value of the United States dollar meant that the purchasing power of a barrel of Soviet crude oil, for example, was much lower than in the 1970s and early 1980s. In 1987 the purchasing power of a barrel of Soviet crude oil in exchange for West German goods had fallen to one-third of its purchasing power in 1984.[1]

With the exception of grain, phosphates used in fertilizer production, and high-technology equipment, Soviet dependence on Western imports historically has been minimal. A growing hardcurrency debt of US$31 billion in 1986 led to reductions in imports from countries with hard currencies. In 1988 Gorbachev cautioned against dependence on Western technology because it required hard currency that "we don't have." He also warned that increased borrowing to pay for imports from the West would lead to dependence on international lending institutions.[1]

Qo'shma Shtatlar

Trade between the United States and the Soviet Union averaged about 1 percent of total trade for both countries through the 1970s and 1980s. Soviet-American trade peaked in 1979 at US$4.5 billion, exactly 1 percent of total United States trade. The Soviet Union continuously ran a trade deficit with the United States in the 1970s and early 1980s, but from 1985 through 1987 the Soviet Union cut imports from the United States while maintaining its level of exports to balance trade between the two countries.[1]

In 1987 total trade between the United States and the Soviet Union amounted to US$2 billion. The Soviet Union exported chemicals, metals (including gold), and petroleum products in addition to fur skins, alcoholic beverages, and fish products to the United States and received agricultural goods—mostly grain—and industrial equipment in return. The value of exports to the Soviet Union in 1987 amounted to US$1.5 billion, three-quarters of which consisted of agricultural products and one-quarter industrial equipment.[1]

Competition from other parts of the world, improvements in Soviet grain production, and political disagreements between the two countries adversely affected American agricultural exports to the Soviet Union in the 1980s. In 1985 and 1986, trade was the lowest since 1973. The Soviet Union had turned to Canada and Western Europe for one-third of its grain supplies, as well as to Argentina, Eastern Europe, Australia, and China. United States government price subsidies helped to expand grain exports in 1987 and 1988.[1]

The United States has long linked trade with the Soviet Union to its foreign policy toward the Soviet Union and, especially since the early 1980s, to Soviet human rights policies. In 1949, for example, the Ko'p tomonlama eksport nazorati bo'yicha muvofiqlashtiruvchi qo'mita (CoCom) was established by Western governments to monitor the export of sensitive high technology that would improve military effectiveness of members of the Varshava shartnomasi and certain other countries. The Jekson-Vanik tuzatishlari, which was attached to the 1974 Trade Reform Act, linked the granting of most-favored-nation o'ng tomonda Sovet yahudiylari hijrat qilmoq.[1]

In 1987 the United States had reason to reassess its trade policy toward the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union had restructured and decentralized authority for trade under the Ministry of Foreign Trade, made improvements in human rights policies, cooperated in arms control negotiations, and shown a willingness to experiment with joint ventures. Furthermore, the United States government recognized that restrictive trade policies were hurting its own economic interests. In April 1988, Soviet and American trade delegations met in Moscow to discuss possibilities for expanded trade. Through increased trade with the United States, the Soviet Union hoped to learn Western management, marketing, and manufacturing skills. Such skills would increase the ability of the Soviet Union to export manufactured goods, and thus earn hard currency, and would improve its competitiveness on the world market. The delegations declared that Soviet-American cooperation would be expanded in the areas of food processing, energy, construction equipment, medical products, and the service sector.[1]

G'arbiy Evropa

In the mid-1980s, West European exports to the Soviet Union were marginal, less than 0.5 percent of the combined gross national product of countries of the Iqtisodiy hamkorlik va taraqqiyot tashkiloti. OECD countries provided the Soviet Union with high-technology and industrial equipment, chemicals, metals, and agricultural products. In return, Western Europe received oil and natural gas from the Soviet Union.[1]

Although oil and gas were the primary Soviet exports to Western Europe, they represented only a small percentage of Western Europe's substantial fuel imports: Soviet oil provided 3 percent and natural gas 2 percent of the energy consumed in Western Europe. The completion of the Urengoy-Uzhgorod export pipeline project increased the importance of Soviet natural gas to Western Europe in the second half of the 1980s. In 1984 France, Austria, the Germaniya Federativ Respublikasi (West Germany), and Italy began receiving natural gas from western Siberia through the pipeline, for which the Soviet Union was paid in hard currency, pumping equipment, and large-diameter pipe. By 1990 the Soviet Union expected to supply 3 percent of all natural gas imported by Western Europe, including 30 percent of West Germany's gas imports.[1]

Unlike the United States, the countries of Western Europe have not viewed trade as a tool to influence Soviet domestic and foreign policies. Western Europe rejected the trade restrictions imposed by the United States after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the declaration of martial law in Poland in 1980. From 1980 to 1982, the United States embargoed the supply of equipment for the Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline, but Western Europe ignored United States pleas to do the same.[1]

Despite the poor relations between the superpowers in the early and mid-1980s, Western Europe tried to improve international relations with the Soviet Union. One major step in this direction was the normalization of relations between Comecon and the European Economic Community (EEC). After fifteen years of negotiations, the EEC approved an accord that established formal relations with Comecon effective June 25, 1988. Although it did not establish bilateral trade relations, the agreement "set the stage" for the exchange of information. This accord marked Comecon's official recognition of the EEC.[1]

Yaponiya

In 1985 trade with the Soviet Union accounted for 1.6 percent of Japanese exports and 1 percent of Japanese imports; Japan was the Soviet Union's fourth most important Western trading partner. Japan's principal exports to the Soviet Union included steel (approximately 40 percent of Japan's exports to the Soviet Union), chemicals, and textiles. The Soviet Union exported timber, nonferrous metals, rare-earth metals, and fuel to Japan. In 1986, despite a reduction in trade between the two countries, the Soviet Union had a trade deficit with Japan. In 1987 trade dropped another 20 percent.[1]

Numerous controversies have thwarted Soviet-Japanese trade. The Toshiba affair, in which Japan was accused of shipping equipment to the Soviet Union that was prohibited by CoCom, caused Japanese-Soviet trade to decrease in 1987. In addition, the Japanese constantly prodded the Soviet Union to return the orollar off the Japanese island of Xokkaydō that had come under Soviet control after World War II. For its part, the Soviet Union complained of the trade imbalance and static structure of Japanese-Soviet trade.[1]

In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union tried to increase its exports to Japan and diversify the nature of the countries' relationship. Soviet proposals have included establishing joint enterprises to exploit natural resources in Siberia and the Soviet Far East, specifically, coal in the southern Yakutiya area of Siberia and petroleum on Sakhalin; cooperating in the monetary and credit fields; jointly surveying and studying marine resources and peaceful uses of space; and establishing joint activities in other countries. The Soviet Union also proposed branching out into joint ventures in the chemical and wood chip industries, electronics, machine tools, and baliqni qayta ishlash. The first Japanese-Soviet joint enterprise, a wood-processing plant in the Soviet Far East, began operation in March 1988. The Soviet Union provided the raw materials, and Japan supplied the technology, equipment, and managerial expertise.[1]

Finlyandiya

In contrast to the variable trade relationships the Soviet Union has had with other West European countries, its relationship with Finland has been somewhat stable because of five-year agreements that regulated trade between the countries. The first was established in 1947, and 1986 marked the beginning of the eighth. Accounting procedures and methods of payment were agreed upon every five years as well by the Finlyandiya banki va Vneshtorgbank. A steady growth in trade between the two countries occurred throughout the 1970s and 1980s.[1]

In the late 1980s, Finland was the Soviet Union's second most important trading partner among the Western nations, after West Germany. Trade with Finland, however, was based on bilateral clearing agreements rather than on exchange of hard currency used with other Western trading partners. In 1986 the Soviet Union shipped 4 percent of its exports to and received 3 percent of its imports from Finland. Finland provided the Soviet Union with ships, particularly those suited to Arctic conditions; heavy machinery; and consumer goods such as clothing, textiles, processed foodstuffs, and consumer durables. The Soviet Union exported oil, natural gas, and fuel and technology for the nuclear power industry.[1]

The system of bilateral clearing agreements on which Soviet-Finnish trade was based required that any increase in Finnish imports from the Soviet Union be accompanied by a corresponding increase in exports to the Soviet Union in order to maintain the bilateral trade balance. At the beginning of the 1980s, Finland increased its imports of Soviet oil, which allowed it to increase its exports to the Soviet Union. This procedure accounted for the steady growth in Soviet-Finnish trade into the late 1980s. By 1988 about 90 percent of Soviet exports to Finland consisted of oil. Chunki Finlar imported more oil than they could consume domestically, they reexported it to other Skandinaviya and West European countries. The Finns complained in late 1987 and early 1988 of a decline in Soviet ship orders and of delinquent payments. The share of Finland's exports to the Soviet Union, which had previously been as high as 25 percent, dropped to 15 percent in 1988.[1]

Trade with Third World countries

The Third World embraces those countries the Soviet Union terms "rivojlanayotgan davlatlar." This category includes those countries of socialist orientation that have some sort of privileged economic affiliation with the Soviet Union, such as Afg'oniston, Angola, Iroq va Nikaragua, but excludes the developing countries ruled by Marksist-leninchi parties, such as Kambodja, Laos va Vetnam. Soviet trade with the Third World has been marked by two characteristics. First, although the Soviet Union has generally played only a minor role in Third World trade, Soviet imports or exports have formed a large portion of the total trade of some countries. Second, the Soviet Union has concentrated its trade with the Third World in the hands of relatively few partners. For example, in 1987 Hindiston, Eron, Iroq, Suriya, Argentina, Misr, kurka, Afg'oniston, Nigeriya va Malayziya together accounted for 75 percent of Soviet imports from and 80 percent of Soviet exports to the Third World.[1]

Although Soviet trade with the Third World increased in volume from 1965 through 1985, it remained between 13 and 15 percent of total Soviet trade for exports and 10 and 12 percent for imports. The Third World's trade with the Soviet Union, however, decreased in the 1970s and into the 1980s. These data include Cuba, since the only figures available concerning Third World trade with the Soviet Union include Cuba. As a percentage of overall Third World trade, the Soviet Union's share fell from 3.9 percent in 1970 to 2.5 percent in 1981. Deducting Soviet trade with Cuba, which has been considerable, would show an even smaller role played by the Soviet Union in Third World trade. In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union sought arrangements that would allow it to maintain a level of trade that minimized the loss of hard currency.[1]

Savdo balansi

During the 1980s, the Soviet Union exported more to Third World countries than it imported from them. Official Soviet statistics showed a trade deficit for this period, but arms and military equipment sales, which were not reported and are thus termed "unidentifiable" exports, accounted for approximately 50 percent of total exports to the Third World throughout the 1980s. Thus, the Soviet Union's hard-currency savdo balansi, including arms sales, with the Third World was positive from 1980 through 1986. In fact, the Soviet Union's positive hard-currency trade balance with the Third World exceeded its hard-currency deficit with the Western industrialized countries in 1985 and 1986. For this reason, the Soviet Union showed an overall positive hardcurrency trade balance for these years.[1]

Until the mid-1970s, bilateral clearing agreements were the primary means by which the Soviet Union settled accounts with its Third World partners. By the early 1980s, hard-currency payments had become the preferred means of settlement. Clearing agreements were used in less than half of all trade transactions. On occasion, the Soviet Union bartered arms for oil.[1]

Composition of trade

Not including arms sales, machinery accounted for 20 percent of total sales to the Third World in 1985. Soviet exports of machinery took up an even higher relative share of total sales to Algeria, Iran, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Yaman Xalq Demokratik Respublikasi (South Yemen), and Turkey. From 1980 through 1984, fuel, mostly oil, made up approximately 33 percent of overall Soviet exports to the Third World, including 50 percent of its exports to Asia and 60 to 70 percent of its exports to Latin America. Since 1985 greater competition on the world market resulting from falling world oil prices and rising Soviet extraction costs has prompted the Soviet Union to try to replace its export of oil with manufactured goods.[1]

The Soviet Union has been the largest arms exporter to the Third World for a number of years. Major arms customers were concentrated in the belt of countries that stretches from North Africa to India, close to the Soviet Union's southern border. Some 72 percent of Soviet weapons exports went to Algeria, India, Iraq, Libya, and Syria. Other important customers included Afghanistan, Angola, Efiopiya, South Yemen, and the Yaman Arab Respublikasi (North Yemen). The Soviet Union lost arms customers in the 1980s, however, when Brazil and Egypt began to expand their arms sales to the Third World. India, which had experienced improvements in its hardcurrency balance in the 1980s, also started to buy arms from other suppliers. In an effort to retain its share of Indian arms customers, the Soviet Union continued to offer India its most sophisticated weapons at even more attractive rates.[1]

The Soviet Union has long been an importer of Third World agricultural products. These imports increased dramatically after 1980 because of poor Soviet harvests from 1979 into the early 1980s and the United States grain embargo against the Soviet Union in 1980 and 1981. From 1980 to 1985, food and agricultural goods, half of them grain, made up 50 percent of Soviet imports from the Third World. In the first nine months of 1986, the decrease in grain purchases accounted for most of the 22 percent drop in imports from the Third World.[1]

Africa and Latin America supplied most of the food imports other than grain. Throughout the 1980s, food imports steadily rose, but imports from individual countries fluctuated. Because of these fluctuations, the Soviet Union was often considered an unstable trade partner compared with Western customers.[1]

Because the Soviet Union was a major producer and exporter of most of the world's minerals, its import requirements for many other commodities (nonferrous metals, in particular) were sporadic. Nonetheless, the Soviet Union was a stable importer of some minerals, particularly bauxite and phosphate rock. The Soviet Union imported up to 50 percent of its boksit dan Gvineya, Gayana, India, Indonesia, and Jamaica. Phosphate rock was abundant in the Soviet Union, but because extraction costs were high most of this mineral was imported from Morocco and Syria.[1]

A decline in Soviet imports of manufactured goods in the 1970s led Third World countries to pressure the Soviet Union to increase the import of these goods in the 1980s. In 1982 the Soviet demand for Third World manufactures began to rise. By 1984 manufactured goods, including manufactured consumer goods, made up 25 percent of Soviet imports from the Third World.[1]

Beginning in 1973, in an effort to earn hard currency, the Soviet Union began to import oil from Third World countries for reexport to Western industrialized countries. This activity slowed from 1980 to 1982, recovered in 1983 through 1985, and continued to increase in 1986. Late that year, the Soviet Union signed an agreement with the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) that restricted the amount of oil it could buy for reexport. By 1988 this agreement had not cut total Soviet oil receipts, however, because oil was paid to the Soviet Union as compensation in arms sales.[1]

Africa, Asia, and Latin America

During the 1980s, the geographical pattern of Soviet-Third World trade changed markedly. A decrease in trade with North Africa and the Middle East balanced a substantial increase in trade with sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America.[1]

In 1987 about 50 percent of the Soviet Union's total identified exports to the Third World went to Asia, and India was the Soviet Union's biggest trade partner. In exchange for Soviet oil and oil products, India supplied food, raw agricultural material, clothing, textiles, and machinery. India was also the Soviet Union's sole significant Third World supplier of equipment and advanced technology, e.g., computers and copiers, much of which was produced by Indian subsidiaries of Western multinational corporations. Malaysia, another important partner of the Soviet Union in Asia, was an important supplier of rubber, palm oil, and tin.[1]

From 1980 to 1983, Soviet exports to Africa increased slightly to 30 percent of its Third World exports and decreased thereafter. Imports from Africa fluctuated from 1980 to 1985 but remained at about 25 percent. Nigeria was the Soviet Union's only important trade partner in sub-Saharan Africa, receiving Soviet machinery and exporting cocoa.[1]

Eksport lotin Amerikasi grew during the 1980s and reached 8 percent in 1985. Latin America's share of Soviet Third World imports was high (40 percent in 1982) because of large imports of Argentine grain. As the Soviet Union's main grain supplier, Argentina was the Soviet Union's most significant import partner in the Third World in 1980, 1981, and 1983. In 1986 the Soviet Union renewed its grain agreement with Argentina for another five years. However, because of a US$11 billion trade deficit with Argentina that the Soviet Union had amassed from 1980 through 1985 and the successful Soviet harvest of 1986, the Soviet Union cut its grain imports from Argentina drastically. In 1986 they were at a six-year low.[1]

Countries of socialist orientation

The countries of socialist orientation can be categorized into two groups: those that had observer status in Comecon and those that were not observers but had privileged affiliations with Comecon member countries. The Soviet Union's trade with the Third World has always been heavily skewed toward countries of socialist orientation. Soviet aid provided most of the foreign capital for these countries and influenced their domestic economic development significantly. The Soviet Union often profited more politically than economically from this trade: most Soviet surpluses were not repaid but became clearing credit, longterm cooperation credit, or short-term commercial credit.[1]

In 1986 the countries that had observer status in Comecon were Afghanistan, Angola, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Nicaragua, and South Yemen. These countries were all characterized by political instability, low GNP, and low export potential. The share of exports to this group rose from 14 percent of total Soviet identified exports to the Third World in 1980 to 28 percent in the first nine months of 1986. Afghanistan, a recipient of Soviet machinery and military equipment, was the Soviet Union's most significant partner in this group. By contrast, trade with Mozambique and South Yemen was negligible.[1]

Countries that had privileged affiliations with Comecon countries were Algeria, Benin, Burma, Congo, Guinea (until 1984), Iraq, Madagascar, Nicaragua (1979–85), Nigeria, Syria, and Tanzania and, at times, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Seychelles, and Zimbabwe. Throughout the 1980s, Soviet exports to these countries oscillated, for example, from 27 percent in 1981 to 15 percent in 1983. This fluctuation, as well as fluctuations in imports, was primarily a result of changes in trade with Iraq, a major Soviet arms-for-oil trading partner in the Third World.[1]

Trade with the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

The Neft eksport qiluvchi mamlakatlarning tashkiloti (OPEC), particularly Iraq and Algeria, absorbed the largest share of the Soviet Union's "unidentified" exports. Although Soviet statistics usually showed a very low or negative trade balance with these countries, the balance was probably high because of arms sales. In the 1980s, some OPEC countries, particularly Iran and Iraq, together with Syria, which was not a member of OPEC, exchanged oil for Soviet arms and military equipment. Oil from these countries was resold to the West for hard currency. In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union attempted to increase its exports of nonmilitary goods to these countries. In May 1986, the Soviet Union and Iraq agreed to increase Soviet nonmilitary equipment sales, and in August 1986 an attempt was made to revive Iraqi gas sales.[1]

Gorbachev's economic reforms

Qachon Mixail Gorbachyov delivered his report on the CPSU's economic policy on June 12, 1985, he noted that growth in exports, particularly machinery and equipment, was slow because the poor quality of Soviet goods prohibited them from being competitive on the world market. In the next three years, Gorbachev introduced many changes that would enable the foreign trade complex to better support his economic policy of acceleration. By May 1988, the structure of the Soviet foreign trade complex had been changed, and operations had been dramatically overhauled.[1]

The price reform called for by the Twenty-Seventh Party Congress was an important step in improving Soviet international economic involvement. Soviet officials admitted that pricing was "economically unsubstantiated" and "unrealistic." They understood that although a fully convertible ruble would not be possible for some time, prices that more accurately reflected production costs, supply and demand, and world market prices were essential for developing a convertible currency. The nonconvertible ruble and the Soviet pricing system discouraged Western businessmen who could not accurately project production costs nor easily convert their ruble profits.[1]

The new joint venture law, passed on January 13, 1987, opened up the Soviet economy to foreign participation, particularly in manufacturing. It was believed that the experience gained in such ventures would facilitate integration into the world economy. Specifically, through upgraded production processes, the Soviet Union could export more competitive manufactured goods and decrease its dependency on energy and raw materials to earn hard currency.[1]

In August 1987, the Soviet Union formally requested observer status in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The Soviet Union also expressed its desire to join other international economic organizations and establish contacts with other regional groups. A major step in this direction occurred in 1988 when the Soviet Union signed a normalization agreement with the EEC. The Soviet government, however, professed no interest in joining the Jahon banki yoki Xalqaro valyuta fondi (XVF). Although Soviet officials claimed that the international monetary system "was not managed properly," it is more likely that IMF and World Bank regulations were the obstacles: both institutions required that members' currencies be freely convertible and that members provide accurate information concerning gold sales and economic performance.[1]

Gorbachev transformed the role of foreign trade in the Soviet economy. Whereas imports previously were regarded exclusively as a vehicle to compensate for difficulties in the short term, Soviet economists under Gorbachev declared that imports should be regarded as alternatives to domestic investment and that exports should serve to gauge the technical level of domestic production. Foreign economic ties were to support growth in production beyond the capacities of the domestic economy. The Soviet Union could thus take a place in the world market that was commensurate with its scientific and technical progress and political weight.[1]

Banklar

The Soviet Union controlled a number of banks abroad. The banks were used in foreign trade, josuslik, pul yuvish and funding of Communist parties.[2]

Misollar:

Izohlar

  1. ^ a b v d e f g h men j k l m n o p q r s t siz v w x y z aa ab ak reklama ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar kabi da au av aw bolta ay az ba bb mil bd bo'lishi bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx tomonidan bz taxminan cb cc CD ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl Ushbu keltirilgan bo'limda ishlatilgan matn dastlab quyidagicha kelgan: Sovet Ittifoqi mamlakatni o'rganish dan Kongressning mamlakatshunoslik kutubxonasi loyiha.
  2. ^ a b v d e f g Rossiyaning piratizatsiyasi: Rossiya islohoti noto'g'ri ketmoqda. Marshall I. Goldman.

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