Quddus jangi - Battle of Jerusalem

Quddus jangi
Qismi Birinchi jahon urushi Yaqin Sharq teatri
General Allenbi 1917 yil 11-dekabrda Quddusga piyoda kiradi
Sana 1917 yil 17 noyabr - 30 dekabr Manzil Sohilida O'rtayer dengizi shimoliy Yaffa ichiga Judean Hills va atrofida Quddus 31 ° 47′N 35 ° 13′E / 31.783 ° N 35.217 ° E / 31.783; 35.217 Natija Britaniya imperiyasi g'alaba
Urushayotganlar
Britaniya imperiyasi  Avstraliya  Hindiston  Yangi Zelandiya  Birlashgan Qirollik	Usmonli imperiyasi  Germaniya imperiyasi
Qo'mondonlar va rahbarlar
Edmund Allenbi Edvard Bulfin Filipp Xetvod Garri Chavel	Erix fon Falkenxayn F. K. fon Kressenshteyn Djevad Posho Ali Fuad Posho
Jalb qilingan birliklar
Misr ekspeditsiya kuchlari XX korpus XXI korpus Cho'lga o'rnatilgan korpus	Ettinchi armiya Sakkizinchi armiya
Yo'qotishlar va yo'qotishlar
18000 (butun kampaniya)	51,000[1] 3540 o'ldirilgan ~ 9,416 kasallik tufayli vafot etdi ~ 22,455 kishi yaralangan 9 100 kishi bedarak yo'qolgan 6,435 asir olingan (butun kampaniya)

Qismi bir qator kuni
Quddus
Tarix Xronologiya
Dovud shahri Ikkinchi ma'bad davri Aelia Capitolina O'rta yosh Quddus qirolligi Mutasarrifat Britaniya mandati Iordaniya qo'shilishi Isroil istilosi Birlashish
Qamallar
Miloddan avvalgi 701 yil Miloddan avvalgi 597 yil Miloddan avvalgi 587 y Miloddan avvalgi 63 y Miloddan avvalgi 37 yil 70 614 637 1099 1187 1244 1834 1917 1948
Joylar
Sharq G'arb Eski shahar Ma'bad tog'i Ma'bad G'arbiy devor Tosh gumbazi Sinagogalar Masjidlar Al-Aqso Muqaddas qabriston cherkovi Ibroniy universiteti Knesset Injil hayvonot bog'i
Odamlar Demografik tarix
Shahar hokimi Bosh ravvin Bosh muftiy Yunon pravoslav patriarxi Salibchilar shohlari
Siyosiy maqomi
Diniy ahamiyati Yahudiylik Nasroniylik Islom Quddus qonuni Quddus kuni Quds kuni Yahudiylashtirish Islomlashtirish AQSh Quddus elchixonasi to'g'risidagi qonun AQSh tomonidan tan olinishi
Boshqa mavzular
Ismlar Bayroq Timsol Shahar hokimligi Buyuk Quddus Shahar chizig'i Transport Qo'shiqlar Tarixiy xaritalar

The Quddus jangi davomida sodir bo'lgan Britaniya imperiyasi qarshi "Quddus operatsiyalari" Usmonli imperiyasi, yilda Birinchi jahon urushi, shahar uchun kurash 17 noyabrdan boshlab rivojlanib, taslim bo'lgandan keyin 1917 yil 30 dekabrgacha davom etib, Falastinning janubiy hujumi davomida Sinay va Falastin kampaniyasi ning Birinchi jahon urushi. Oldin Quddus ta'minlanishi mumkin edi, ikkita jang inglizlar tomonidan tan olingan Judean Hills ning shimolida va sharqida Xevron –Junction Station liniyasi. Bular edi Nebi Samvill jangi 17-24 noyabr kunlari va 1917 yil 26-30 dekabr kunlari Quddusni mudofaa qilish. Shuningdek, ular ushbu Quddus operatsiyalari doirasida 1917 yil 21 va 22 dekabr kunlari Nahr el-Auja bo'ylab yurish uchun muvaffaqiyatli ikkinchi urinishni tan olishdi. Yaffa jangi Garchi Yaffa 16 noyabrda Mug'ar tizmasidagi jang natijasida ishg'ol qilingan bo'lsa ham.^[2]

Ushbu ketma-ket janglar Britaniya imperiyasi "s XX korpus, XXI korpus, va Cho'lga o'rnatilgan korpus ning kuchli qarshiliklariga qarshi Yildirim armiyasi guruhi "s Ettinchi armiya Yahudiya tepaliklarida va Sakkizinchi armiya Yaffadan shimolga, O'rta er dengizi sohilida. Yaffa va Quddusning yo'qolishi, shuningdek, 80 km masofadagi hududning yo'qolishi Misr ekspeditsiya kuchlari (EEF) dan oldindan G'azo, qo'lga olingandan keyin Beersheba, G'azo, Xareira va Sheria, Tel el Khuweilfe va Mug'ar tizmasi jangi, uchun jiddiy to'siq bo'ldi Usmonli armiyasi va Usmonli imperiyasi.^[3]

Ushbu g'alabalar natijasida Buyuk Britaniya imperiyasi kuchlari Quddusni egallab olishdi va yangi strategik jihatdan mustahkam mustahkam chiziq qurishdi. Ushbu chiziq Jaffa shimolidan dengiz tekisligida, Yahudiya tepaliklari bo'ylab o'tdi Bireh Quddusning shimolida va Zaytun tog'idan sharqqa qarab davom etdi. Dan yo'lni bosib olish bilan Beersheba Xevron va Baytlahm orqali Quddusga va Quddusning janubida joylashgan Usmonli hududi bilan birga shahar xavfsizligi ta'minlandi. 11 dekabr kuni general Edmund Allenbi ga kirdi Eski shahar orqali piyoda Yaffa darvozasi muqaddas shaharga hurmat ko'rsatish uchun ot yoki transport vositalarining o'rniga. U ko'p asrlar davomida uchta buyuk dinlar muqaddas tutgan Quddusni boshqargan birinchi nasroniy bo'lgan. The Buyuk Britaniyaning Bosh vaziri, Devid Lloyd Jorj, qo'lga olishni "Britaniya xalqi uchun Rojdestvo sovg'asi" deb ta'riflagan. Jang Britaniya imperiyasi uchun katta ruhiy kuch bo'ldi.^[4]

Fon

Vaziyat 1917 yil 16-noyabr soat 18:00 da GHQ EEFga ma'lum

Britaniya generali Edmund Allenbi, Bosh qo'mondon ning Misr ekspeditsiya kuchlari (EEF), ga qarshi hal qiluvchi g'alabani qo'lga kiritgan edi Germaniya generali Erix fon Falkenxayn, Usmonli kuchlari qo'mondoni Falastin, da Mug'ar tizmasi jangi 13-noyabr kuni.^[5][6][7] Britaniya imperiyasining g'alabasi fon Falkenxaynni o'zidan voz kechishga majbur qildi Ettinchi va Sakkizinchi qo'shinlar (buyruq Fevzi Posho va Kress fon Kressenshteyn tegishli ravishda) va uning shtab-kvartirasini ko'chirish Quddus ga Nablus 14-noyabr kuni. Usmonli sifatida III korpus (Ettinchi armiya) orqali Quddusga etib bordi Xevron mag'lubiyatidan keyin yo'l Beersheba, Quddus atrofida mudofaani rivojlantirishga buyruq berildi. Ushbu korpus shaharni ushlab turdi XX korpus Junction Station-dan orqaga chekindi Judean Hills Quddus tomon. XX korpus nafaqaga chiqqanida, inglizlarning oldinga siljishini to'xtatish yoki sekinlashtirish uchun kuchli qo'riqchilarni qoldirdilar. Himoya qurish uchun va zaiflashgan va uyushmagan Yettinchi armiyani qayta tashkil etish uchun vaqt kerak edi. Ular shaharga kelganlarida XX korpus Quddusning mudofaasi uchun javobgarlikni o'z zimmasiga oldi, III korpus esa Quddusdan shimolga qarab harakat qilishni davom ettirdi. Nablus yo'li.^[8]

The Britaniya urush kabineti Allenbini, agar Britaniyaning ushbu hududdagi kuchlari saqlanib qolmasa, uzoq muddatli istiqbolga olib kelmaydigan operatsiyalarni bajarmaslik haqida ogohlantirgan edi.^[9] Ularning xavotirlari, ehtimol, yangi rus tomonidan 8 noyabrda e'lon qilingan tinchlik taklifi bilan bog'liq Bolshevik o'rtasida hukumat Rossiya va Germaniya. 1918 yil 3-martda imzolanishi rejalashtirilgan hujjat alohida tinchlik shartnomasini tashkil etadi va natijada ularning barchasi qaytarib olinadi Rossiya qo'shinlari urushdan. Hammasi Germaniya kuchlari sharqiy jabhada keyin e'tiborni boshqa joylarda Angliya va Frantsiya kuchlariga qarshi kurashga qaratishi mumkin edi.^[10]

Nemis askarlari Quddus 1914 yilda

Allenbi Yahudiya tepaliklarining aniq xaritalari yo'qligidan va mintaqadagi avvalgi kampaniyalar tarixi g'arbiy kuchli qo'riqxonalarga qilingan shoshilinch yoki engil qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan hujumlarga qarshi aniq ogohlantirishlardan xabardor edi. Uning oldingi kuchlari uzoq vaqt davomida o'zlarining bazalaridan uzoqlashib, charchagan va charchaganlar.^[11][12] Endi temir yo'ldan 35 milya (56 km) Dayr el Belah Allenbi qo'shinlarida mudofaa zaxiralari yo'q edi, ularning ortida bu ikki Usmonli qo'shinining kelishgan surilishini to'xtatish mumkin edi. Bunday qarshi hujum ularni orqaga qaytarishlarini yaxshi ko'rar edi G'azo va Beersheba.^{[13][Izoh 1]}

Allenbi qarshi hujum tahdidi va uning ta'minotidagi vaziyatni ko'rib chiqib, Yahudiya tepaligiga hujum qilish uchun etarlicha katta kuch va dengiz tekisligida ishlash uchun alohida kuch bazadan uzoqroq joyda saqlanishi mumkinligiga qaror qildi. U Yahudiya tepaliklarida Fevzi Poshoning Usmonli 7-armiyasiga tezda Quddusni egallash umidida hujum qilishga qaror qildi.^[9][14] Bu ularning armiyasini qayta qurish, chuqur xandaklar qazish yoki eng yomoni, qarshi hujumni yakunlash uchun vaqt ajratish umidida bosimni ushlab turardi.^[11][12]

Prelude

Britaniya imperiyasi ta'minot liniyalari

Yahudiy tepaligiga rejalashtirilgan avans, ularning qobiliyatiga juda bog'liq edi aloqa liniyalari oldingi chiziq qo'shinlarini oziq-ovqat, suv va o'q-dorilar bilan ta'minlash. Ular allaqachon temir yo'l va tayanch zonalaridan ancha uzoqlikda ishlaydilar va natijada avans 17 noyabrda to'xtatib turishga majbur bo'ldi, chunki etkazib berish korpus nazorati ostidagi ustunlar tomonidan temir yo'lga qaytarib yuborilgan edi. materiallar.^[15][16]

To'ldiradigan fantaziyalar^[17] va ularni Yaffa yaqinidagi tuyalarga yuklash

Uskunalar armiyasi chekinish paytida imkon qadar infratuzilmani vayron qilganligi sababli temir yo'l orqali etkazib berishni sekin, ammo kuniga 24 soat davom etadigan ish edi. Faqat inglizlarning yuk mashinalari Armiya xizmat korpusi (ASC) Avtotransport kompaniyalari va tuya Misr tuya transport korpusi G'azodan Junction Stantsiyasigacha bo'lgan yagona, tor, kam metalllangan yo'ldan foydalanishi mumkin edi. G'azo va Bayt Xunun yo'l muhrlanmagan va qumga chuqur bo'lib, yuk mashinalarining yurishini qiyinlashtirgan, hatto bir tonna engil yuk bilan ham. Ta'minot, shuningdek, dengiz orqali jo'natilib, unga tushdi Vadi Sukereir va keyinchalik Yaffada. Yaffada infratuzilmaning etishmasligi kema orqali olib kelingan barcha ta'minot bo'lishi kerak edi sörf qayiqlariga o'zaro yuklangan, keyin plyajlarda tushirilishi kerak edi. Bunday operatsiyalar ob-havoga juda bog'liq edi, shuning uchun dengiz orqali tashiladigan materiallar miqdori cheklangan edi. Ammo otlarga qaram bo'lgan armiyani boqish juda katta vazifa edi; otning yurish ratsioni kuniga 9,5 funt (4,3 kg) donni tashkil etdi. Hech qanday katta miqdordagi oziq-ovqatga muhtoj bo'lmagan bu oz miqdordagi cho'lga o'rnatilgan korpusdagi 25000 otga ko'paytirilganda, kuniga 100 tonnadan ortiq don ishlab chiqarildi. Otlar uchun yuzta yuk mashinasi va oldingi qatorda qo'shinlar talab qiladigan ratsion uchun transport kerak bo'ladi.^[18][19]

Barcha mavjud bo'lgan yuk mashinalari va tuyalar G'azo bo'ylab temir yo'ldan shimolga qarab Junction Station stantsiyasiga qarab harakatlanadigan konvoylarda tashkil etilgan. Dayr el Belah ga El Mejdel keyin esa Xulis Bu erda 26 va 27 ombor ta'minoti bo'limi (DUS) xizmat ko'rsatish uchun rivojlangan ta'minot chiqindilarini o'rnatdi Avstraliyada o'rnatilgan diviziya va Anzakka o'rnatilgan diviziya.^[20] Ushbu axlatxonalardan 5 ta kompaniyaning (Yangi Zelandiya armiyasi xizmat korpusi) va 32, 33 va 34 kompaniyalarning transport bo'limlari (Avstraliya armiyasi xizmat korpusi ) Anzak o'rnatilgan diviziyasiga, 35, 36 va 37 kompaniyalar esa Avstraliyaning o'rnatilgan diviziyasiga xizmat qilgan. Ushbu ot va xachirdan ishlangan vagonlar kompaniyalari brigada operatsiyalari paytida o'z brigadalariga xizmat ko'rsatish uchun ishlashi mumkin edi va kerak bo'lganda bo'linish operatsiyalari paytida bo'linma poezdlarida shakllanishi mumkin edi. Ramlehda yuk tashuvchi yuk tashuvchi avtomobil tashkil qilindi, u erda yuklar tashlandi va transport kompaniyalari yuklarni ekspeditorlarga tarqatishdi. A'zolari Misr mehnat korpusi (ikkinchi haydovchilar sifatida) Avstraliya armiyasi xizmat korpusi bilan birgalikda brigadalar tomonidan buyurtma qilingan umumiy xizmat va limber vagonlarini tashish, yuklash va tushirish ishlarida qatnashgan. Katta urinish ta'minot bo'limlari tomonidan xuddi shu tarzda doimiy operatsiyada jangovar bo'linmalarga o'q-dorilar etkazib berish uchun ishlaydigan divizion o'q-dorilar ustunlariga o'xshash tarzda amalga oshirildi.^[21][22]

Cho'lga o'rnatilgan korpusning oldinga siljishi davom etmoqda

15-noyabr kuni Cho'lga o'rnatilgan korpus qo'mondoni, General-leytenant Ser Garri Shauvel uchun buyruqlar chiqardi Yeomanry o'rnatilgan diviziyasi (General-mayor) G. de S. Barrow ) va Anzak o'rnatilgan diviziyasi (general-mayor) E. W. C. Chaytor ) avansni davom ettirish uchun Ramleh va Lud Junction Station-dan taxminan 8 milya (8.0 km).^[23] Xuddi shu kuni Yeomriya otryadi 6-otryad brigadasi (brigada generali C. A. C. Godvin) tomonidan otliq zaryaddan so'ng Quddus yo'liga etib bordi. Abu Shusheh. Ushbu ayblov bundan ham jasurroq deb ta'riflangan Mug'ar tizmasi, otliqlar hujum qilgan yerning toshloq tabiati tufayli.^[24] The Yangi Zelandiya otliqlar brigadasi (Brigada generali V. Meldrum) 16 noyabrda Yaffani bosib olib, EEFning chap qanotini himoya qildi. G'alaba natijasida ushbu shahar qo'lga kiritildi Ayun Kara ikki kun oldin, bu Usmonli sakkizinchi armiyasini chekinishga majbur qildi Nahr el Auja dengizga Yaffadan 4 milya (6,4 km) shimoliy-shimoli-sharqda kiradi.^[25][26] Sakkizinchi armiyaning chiqarilishi ularni Usmonli ettinchi armiyasining shimoliga joylashtirdi va bu qo'shinning hujum qilish uchun o'ng qanotini ochdi. Natijada, Ettinchi armiya qirg'oq sektoridan uzoqlashib, Yahudiya tepaliklariga o'tishga majbur bo'ldi. Bu erda Quddus oldida Usmonli piyoda birliklari mudofaa ekranini yaratdilar.^[27]

Jang

Yahudiya tepaligiga o'tish boshlanadi

EEF tomonidan davom etayotgan bosimga qaramay, ikki qarama-qarshi kuchlar mudofaani afzal ko'rgan er sharoitida harakat qilishdi. Usmonli ettinchi armiyasi tomonidan qoldirilgan qo'riqchilardan tashqari XX korpus ettinchi armiya tepaliklarda iste'foga chiqqach, Quddusdan 6,4 km (6,4 km) balandlikda bir qator balandliklarda janubiy va janubi-g'arbiy yo'nalishlarda harakatlanadigan asosan bitta xandaklar chizig'ini o'rnatishga muvaffaq bo'ldi.^[15] 17-noyabr kuni havodan razvedka orqali Quddusdan shimolga yo'l, qochqinlar bilan to'lib toshgan.^[28]

Latron yaqinidagi tog 'dovonlariga kiradigan 4-engil ot polk

Allenby 18-noyabr kuni Britaniyaning XXI korpusining shtab-kvartirasida bo'lganida El Kastin, Usmonli ettinchi armiyasini Yahudiya tepaliklariga yaqindan kuzatib borish to'g'risida qaror qabul qilindi.^[29] Bu Usmonli armiyasining qayta to'planishiga yoki mudofaa qurishga ozgina vaqt bo'lganligiga ishonch hosil qilish umidida edi, bu ko'proq vaqt ajratib bo'lmaydigan bo'lib chiqishi mumkin edi.^[30]

Allenbining rejasi Quddusda yoki uning yonida jang qilishdan qochish, ammo shaharga boradigan barcha yo'llarni kesib tashlash va Usmonli armiyasini uni evakuatsiya qilishga majbur qilish edi.^[31] U ikkita piyoda bo'linishni buyurdi; The 52-chi (pasttekislik) (General-mayor J. Xill) va 75-divizion (General-mayor P. C. Palin) va ikkita o'rnatilgan bo'linma; avansni boshlash uchun Yeomanriya va Avstraliyaning o'rnatilgan diviziyalari.^{[Izoh 2]} Ular sharqqa qarab harakatlanishi kerak edi Latron yo'nalishi bo'yicha 16 noyabrda qo'lga olingan Yaffa - Quddus yo'li.^[29][32]

75-diviziondan piyoda qo'shinlar iste'fodagi Usmonlilar tomonidan ushbu yaxshilik uchun bir necha marta buzilishlar olib borilganiga qaramay, katta yo'l bilan harakat qilishlari kerak edi. metalllashtirilgan yo'l orqali sharqdan g'arbga qarab yugurish Amvas.^[32][33] 75-diviziyaning chap va shimolida 52-chi (pasttekislik) diviziyadan piyoda qo'shinlar kichik yo'llar yoki yo'llardan o'tishlari kerak edi. Ludd Quddus tomon. Va 52-chi (pasttekislik) diviziyaning chap tomonida Yeomriya o'rnatilgan diviziyasi shimolga va shimoliy sharqga qarab harakatlanishi kerak edi. Ularning maqsadi Usmonli ettinchi armiyasining aloqa liniyalarini kesish edi Bireh, Quddusdan shimolga 8 milya (13 km) Quddus - Nablus yo'liga.^[32][33]

Yeomanry o'rnatilgan diviziyasining 6-chi, 8-chi va 22-brigadalari, 20-brigada bilan, Qirol ot artilleriyasi (13 funt ) qadimgi Rim yo'li orqali Ludddan shimol tomon harakatlanishi kerak edi Ramalloh orqali Berfilya va Bayt Ur el-Taxta Bireh tomon.^[33] Shu bilan birga 53-chi (Uels) divizioni (General-mayor S. F. Mott) Xevronga borish uchun Beersheba bo'ylab Quddus yo'liga shimol tomon yurishi kerak edi. Baytlahm sharqqa qarab Quddusdan yo'lni ta'minlash uchun harakat qilishdan oldin Erixo.^[31]

Avstraliya va Yeomanyaga o'rnatilgan diviziyalar bilan 75-diviziya 18 noyabrda Yahudiya tepaliklariga kirishni boshladi.^{[29][3-eslatma]}

[Q] Quddusni egallab olmoqchi bo'lgan qo'shinlar bu yo'ldan o'tib ketishdi, faqat bundan tashqari Joshua. Filist va Hitt, Bobil va Ossuriya, Misr va Rim va Yunon, Frank Xoch ritsarlari, hammasi shu yo'ldan o'tgan va Amvas tepaligini qoni bilan sug'organ.

— R. M. P. Preston^[31]

Birinchi maqsad Yaffaning Amvasdagi Quddus yo'ligacha bo'lgan ikki tomonidagi balandliklarni egallab olish va xavfsizligini ta'minlash edi, shuning uchun 75-bo'lim bu yo'ldan yuqoriga ko'tarilib, Yahudiya tepaliklariga kirib borishi mumkin edi. Ichida temir yo'l liniyasi bo'ylab harakatlanish Vadi Surar piyoda askarlarning o'ng tomonida 75-diviziyada Anzak otliq diviziyasi bo'lgan 2-engil otlar brigadasi, vaqtincha Avstraliyada o'rnatilgan diviziyaga biriktirilgan. Brigada 9-engil ot polk yuqoriga burilish harakatini amalga oshirdi Vadi es Selman Amvas shimolidan qishloqqa etib borish uchun Yalo Sharqdan 3 milya (3,2 km). Ushbu muvaffaqiyatli operatsiyadan so'ng Avstraliyaning Dengiz bo'limi og'zidagi dam olish lageriga chekindi Nahr Sukereir. 19-noyabr kuni ertalab 75-diviziyadan piyoda askarlar Amvas evakuatsiya qilinganligini topdi, ammo Yeomraniya otliq diviziyasining 8-otryad brigadasining oldingi qo'riqchisi, Londonning 3-okrugi Yeomanri O'sha kuni kechqurun Bayt Ur el-Taxtadan 3,2 km uzoqlikda, 22-otryad brigadasi yetib bordi. Shilta.^[29][34]

75-divizion

14-Quddus operatsiyalari xaritasi - 1917 yil 18-noyabrdan 9-dekabrgacha

Quddusga boradigan asosiy yo'l tepaliklarga kirganidan atigi 2 mil (3,2 km) o'tgach, u osonlikcha himoyalanadigan dovondan o'tdi Bab al-Vad.^[9] 19-noyabr kuni 75-divizion piyoda askarlar bu yo'ldan yuqoriga ko'tarildi; ularning 232-brigada Abu Shushedan soat 07: 30da kimsasiz Amvas shahrini egallab olish uchun va hindistonlik soat 11: 00ga qadar ketgan edi 58-chi Von miltiqlari (chegara kuchlari) ning 234-brigada Bab el Vad cho'qqisiga chiqish uchun kurashgan.^[35]

Bab el-Vaddan keyin yo'l Quddusga chuqur, tor vodiylar orqali, tik shov-shuvlar va toshli tepaliklarning yelkalari orqali o'tdi. Tog'lardan o'tishning boshqa yo'llari ham bor edi, ammo ular xarita qilinmagan, qo'pol va toshli tog 'izlari va yo'llarining chigalligi edi - ko'pincha eshak izlaridan kamroq - piyoda askarlar, otdan tushgan otliqlar va artilleriya harakati juda qiyin bo'lgan.^[9] Dag'al izlar tor vodiylar bo'ylab va bir necha metr oralig'ida har bir tog 'yonbag'ridan chiqib ketadigan konus shaklidagi tepaliklar guruhlari va toshlarning ketma-ket tokchalari tomonidan buzilgan ustara tayanchlari buzilgan qoziqlar ustidan o'tib ketdi.^[36] Katta yo'ldan shimolga yoki janubga o'tishni artilleriya qo'llab-quvvatlashi deyarli mumkin emas edi.^[36] Kuchli yomg'irda va sovuqda, nam va loyli sharoitda 75-diviziya qurollarini yo'ldan tashqariga chiqarish imkonsiz deb topildi. Ushbu qurollar sakkiztagacha otlardan iborat jamoalar tomonidan bir kun oldin qurolga olib kelingan edi.^[37]

Barcha harbiy harakatlar qish sharoitlari tufayli yanada qiyinlashdi; yer silliq edi va zich qora bulutlar erta qorong'ilikni keltirib, ko'rinishni to'xtatdi. Soat 17: 00dan keyin avansni iloji yo'q edi, shu vaqtgacha eng muhimi piket qishlog'idan yarim mil uzoqlikda joylashgan edi Saris. 75-diviziyaning oldinga piyoda qo'shinlari ertalabdan boshlab 16 milya ilgarilab ketishdi. Ular ikki qavatli Usmonli tomonidan otilgan otash ostida, yo'lni bosib o'ting merganlar.^[35][38]

1917 yildagi odatiy Judean Hills landshafti

19-noyabr kuni kechqurun qarama-qarshi qo'shinlar ustidan momaqaldiroq, keyin esa yomg'ir yog'di. Bir necha soat ichida tog 'oldi va tekislikdagi har bir vodiy toshqin ostida qoldi. Yozda qattiq va mustahkam bo'lgan qora tuproq tekisligi bu qish sharoitida yurish uchun yopishqoq va og'ir bo'lib, g'ildirakli transport vositalari uchun deyarli o'tib bo'lmaydigan bo'lib qoldi. Kunduzi issiq, kechasi yoqimli bo'lgan harorat tez pasayib, sovuq bo'lib qoldi. Piyoda askarlari yozgi shim kiyimi va ko'ylak kiyib yurishgan edi. Faqat bitta adyol bilan (va / yoki a ajoyib palto ), ushbu mexanizm haydovchi yomg'irdan va achchiq sovuqdan ozgina himoya qildi.^[39]

Bunday sharoitda Usmonli kuchlari yo'lda duch kelishgan edi. Falkenxaynning orqa qo'riqchilari XX korpusni Quddusni himoya qilish uchun nafaqaga chiqqanligi sababli tuzishni buyurdilar. Qo'mondonlik tizmalarida tashkil etilgan ushbu qo'riqchilar tepaliklarda qazilgan kichik guruhlardan iborat edi. Ushbu ketma-ket pozitsiyalarning har biriga hujum qilingan Hind va Gurxa himoyachilardan ustun kelgan qo'shinlar.^[35]

Usmonli qo'shinlarining pozitsiyalari

Quddus operatsiyalari. 1917 yil 19-noyabr soat 18:00 da vaziyat

Nahr Sukrerir liniyasiga qo'shimcha ravishda Beyt Jibrin bilan birga Summeil va El Tineh (Mug'ar tizmasi jangi bo'lgan joyda), 1917 yil 19-noyabr oqshomida EEF va Usmonli qo'shinlarining pozitsiyalari ushbu eskiz xaritasida ko'rsatilgan.

Bosh qarorgohi Nablusda, Quddusni himoya qilish uchun ettinchi Usmonli armiyasi joylashtirilgan; uning chap qanotini III korpusning 3-otliq diviziyasi qamrab olgan. 27-diviziondan piyoda qo'shinlar Xevrondan Quddusga o'tib ketishdi. XX korpusning 53-divizionidan piyoda qo'shinlar Nebi Samveyl oldida saf tortishdi, zaxirada 26-divizion piyodalari. Birehni Quddusda Nablus yo'ligacha himoya qilgan piyoda askarlar 24-diviziyadan, 19-diviziyadan piyoda qo'shinlar Bire va Nablus o'rtasida yarim yo'lda edilar. Bosh qarorgohi joylashgan Usmonli sakkizinchi armiyasi Tul Karm, XXII korpusini Nahr el-Aujada joylashtirdi. 3-chi, 7-chi va 16-chi diviziyalar qirg'oqdan cho'zilib, inglizlarning piyoda qo'shinlari bilan deyarli mos edi 54-chi (Sharqiy Angliya) divizioni yanada ichki.^[40]

Nablus yo'lini kesishga urinishlar

Yetib kelgan 52-chi (pasttekislik) diviziyasining etakchi piyoda brigadasi Bayt Likiya 19-noyabr kuni katta yo'ldan shimol tomon yo'l bo'ylab harakatlanib, tomonga qarab turdilar Kuryet el Enab pulemyot bilan qurollangan juda qat'iy va dahshatli Usmoniy qo'riqchisi tomonidan Kustal va Beyt Dukka.^[41] Usmonlilarning pozitsiyalari kuchli himoya qilindi va 52-chi (pasttekislik) bo'linmasi tuman bo'lguncha oldinga bora olmadi, 21-noyabr kuni qorong'i oldidan pastga tushib, 75-chi diviziyaga tez joylashish, tepalikka ko'tarilish va Usmonli kuchlarini süngülerle mag'lub etish imkoniyatini berdi. .^[42] O'sha kecha qo'shinlar temir ratsionini iste'mol qilishdi (erkaklar favqulodda ratsion sifatida), ba'zilari esa katta monastir va sanatoriyda ayanchli sharoitlardan boshpana topdilar. Kecha kuchli yomg'ir bilan sovuq edi va boshpanasiz qolganlar qattiq azob chekishdi. Ertasi kuni tushga qadar tor yo'llarda tirbandlik tufayli materiallar kelmadi.^[43][44]

52-chi (pasttekislik) piyoda askarlar o'zlarining o'ng tomonidagi 75-diviziya va chap tomonidagi Yeomriya o'rnatilgan diviziyasi o'rtasida pozitsiyaga o'tdilar. Yeomanyaga o'rnatilgan diviziya, oldinga qarab ketmoqda Bayt Ur el Foka Quddusdan 10 mil (16 km) shimolda joylashgan Nablus yo'lida Bire, Biredagi 75-bo'limda piyoda qo'shinlar bilan birlashib, Nablusni Quddusga olib borishi kerak edi. Sarisdagi qarshilik zaiflashayotganga o'xshaydi, soat 11: 00ga qadar sekin harakat davom etmoqda.^[43][45] Oxir-oqibat Saris 21-noyabr kuni tushdan keyin g'olib bo'ldi.^[42]

Piyoda bo'linmalarining shimolidagi tepaliklarda ish olib borgan Yeomriya otliq diviziyasi oldinga intilish uchun kurashni davom ettirdi. Ular Yahudiya tepaligining eng qo'pol va eng qorong'u joylari bo'ylab Bayt Ur el-Taxtaga qarab 9,7 km uzunlikdagi bitta faylli kolonnada harakatlanishdi.^[46] 21-noyabr kuni soat 11:30 da etakchi polk Dorset Yeomanry tepaliklardan tushdi Bayt Ur el Foqa turgan va usti Zaytun tizmasining g'arbiy qirrasini ushlab turgan Usmonli birliklarini topgan.^[43] Birehning g'arbiy qismida joylashgan bu tizma 3000 Usmonli qo'shinlari (3-Usmonli otliq diviziyasining butun qismi va 24-diviziyaning yarmi) tomonidan bir nechta artilleriya batareyalari. Otdan tushgan Yeomanriya tizmani qisqa vaqt ichida bosib o'tishga muvaffaq bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, ular tez orada majburan haydab chiqarildi.^[47] Kuchli yog'ingarchilik va sovuq ob-havo odamlarni ham, hayvonlarni ham qattiq sinovdan o'tkazdi, ular bir necha marta muvaffaqiyatsiz urinishganda, tog 'tizmasining tosh va tosh tomonlariga ko'tarilishdi. Ammo tushdan keyin Usmonlilarning qo'shimcha kuchlari shimoldan kelib, kuchli hujumga o'tdilar. Ular Yeomriya o'rnatilgan diviziyasini tog 'tizmasining g'arbiy qismidagi chuqur jarlikka qaytarishga majbur qilishdi.^[48] O'sha kecha Berkshire Yeomanry quyi chuqur vodiyda otlarini yomg'ir ostida, yaqin atrofda Usmonli birliklariga qaragan tizmaga yotqiz.^[43] Tez orada vaziyat jiddiylashdi va uchta brigadaga ham chiqib ketish va Beyt Ur el Foqaga nafaqaga chiqish haqida buyruqlar berildi va qorong'i tushgandan keyin muvaffaqiyatli olib chiqildi.^[49] Hech qanday havodan qo'llab-quvvatlash mumkin emas edi, ehtimol ob-havo tufayli № 1 otryad Avstraliyaning uchish korpusi 22 va 24-noyabr kunlari Bireh qishlog'ida havo hujumini uyushtirdi.^[28]

21–24 noyabr: Nebi Samvil jangi

Nebi Samvil cho'qqisi

Jangi Nebi Shomuil inglizlar tomonidan 1917 yil 17 noyabrda boshlanib, 24 noyabrda tugaganligi rasman aniqlangan.^[2] Ammo 21-noyabrgacha 75-chi divizion piyoda qo'shinlari Bire tomon yurishni davom ettirdilar. O'sha kuni piyoda diviziya shimoliy sharqqa qarab 52-chi (pasttekislik) diviziyasining old tomonini kesib o'tayotganda, ularning harakatlari Bidu shahrida Nebi Shomuil balandligida mustahkamlanib, Quddus va uning mudofaasida hukmronlik qilgan Usmon kuchlari tomonidan to'sib qo'yilgan edi.^[50][51] Shomuil payg'ambar qabrining an'anaviy joyi bo'lgan ushbu tepalik, kechqurun olib borilgan 234-brigada, 75-divizion, shiddatli janglardan so'ng.^[42][50] 52-chi (pasttekislik) diviziya yanada qiyin chiziqni bosib o'tgan bo'lsa, 75-chi diviziya janubi g'arbiy yondashuvlarga yo'naltirildi.^[42] Keyingi kunlarda Usmonli kuchlarining bir necha qarshi hujumlari muvaffaqiyatsiz tugadi.^[52] Yaqin janglarda Usmonli askarlari kuchli qarshi hujumga o'tdilar va Gurxa piyoda askarlari ularga qarshi kurashguncha masjid darvozalariga etib bordilar.^[53] Fevzining ettinchi armiyasi Allenbining ikkita piyoda diviziyasiga qarshi to'xtab qolgan edi.^[54]

Uchta ingliz diviziyasining hujumlari uchta Usmoniylar bo'linmasi tomonidan amalga oshirilgan edi; Britaniyaliklar 2 mingdan ziyod talafot ko'rdilar. Usmonlilarning qurbonlari haqida taxminlar yo'q.^[55] 28-noyabrdagi qo'shinlarning pozitsiyalarini aks ettiruvchi eskiz xaritasi (quyida 'Usmoniylarning qarshi hujumlari 1800 yil 28-noyabr, 1917-yilgi xaritaga qarang) Nebi Samvil haqidagi hududni Angliya 60-chi (London) bo'limi va Usmonlilar 53-bo'limi va hanuzgacha qattiq tortishib turganligini ko'rsatadi. Quddusdan Nablusgacha bo'lgan hayotiy yo'l hali ham Usmonlilar qo'lida edi.^{[56][4-eslatma]}

24-noyabr kuni Allenbi EEFning XXI va cho'lga o'rnatilgan korpuslarning uchta bo'linmasiga yordam berishni buyurdi.^[57] Bunday yirik tuzilmalarni harakatga keltirish uchun bir oz to'xtab qolish kerak edi va shu sababli hujum to'xtatildi, ammo fon Falkenxayn va uning Usmonli armiyasi jangovar harakatlarning vaqtincha to'xtatilganiga e'tibor berishdi.^[58][59]

24 noyabr: Nahr el-Auja bo'ylab birinchi hujum

Ikki piyoda askar va bitta bo'linma tomonidan Yahudiya tepaliklariga Quddus tomon yo'nalish 24-noyabr kuni Nebi Samvil hududida to'xtatildi. Xuddi shu kuni piyoda askarlar 54-chi (Sharqiy Angliya) divizioni va Anzak o'rnatilgan diviziyasi bo'ylab hujumni boshladi Nahr el Auja Yaffaning shimolidagi O'rta er dengizi sohilida.^[55][57] Mavjud yagona brigada bu edi Yangi Zelandiya otliqlar brigadasi ishg'ol qilingan shaharda garnizon navbatchiligida bo'lgan Yaffa 16 noyabrdan beri.^[60] Shimoliy qirg'oqda daryo Usmonli Sakkizinchi armiyasining 3 va 7-bo'limlari tomonidan himoya qilingan.^[27]

Yangi Zelandiyadagi otliqlar brigadasi daryodan o'tib, ikkita plyujet yaratdi. Birinchisi, Xirbet Hadra (shuningdek Xurbet Hadra deb ham yuritiladi) yaqinidagi katta yo'ldagi ko'prikdan o'tib, ikkinchisi esa Shayx Muanis, daryoning og'ziga yaqin joyda. Ushbu operatsiyalar ikkita maqsadga ega edi - hududni egallash va Usmonli sakkizinchi armiyasini Yettinchi armiyani kuchaytirish uchun Yahudiya tepaliklariga qo'shin o'tkazishdan qaytarish. Yangi Zelandiya otliq brigadasining muvaffaqiyatli harakatlaridan so'ng, 54-chi (Sharqiy Angliya) diviziyasining ikkita piyoda batalyoni bu ikki ko'prikni 25-noyabrda katta kuchlar hujumiga uchraguncha shimoliy sohilda ushlab turdilar.^[11][61] Usmonli sakkizinchi armiyasining 3-chi va 7-chi bo'linmalari plyonkalarda haydab chiqib, taktik vaziyatni tikladilar.^[27]

Chuqur va tez oqadigan el-Auja daryosidan ma'lum va yaxshi joylardan tashqari o'tish mumkin emas edi, shuning uchun 24-noyabr soat 01:00 da Kanterberidagi otishma polkini plyajdagi fordda kesib o'tdi. Ular chopqillab yurishdi va tezda fordni ko'rib chiqmaydigan tepaliklarni egallab olishdi va shayx Muannis qishlog'ini egallab olishdi (bu fordga o'z nomini berdi), ammo Usmonli otliq garnizoni qochib qutuldi.^[62][63] Vellingtonga o'rnatilgan miltiqchilar polki Kanterberi polkiga ko'tarilib, keyin sharq tomon katta yo'ldagi ko'prikka qo'mondonlik qilgan Xurbet Hadra tomon yo'l oldi. Ular 29 mahbusni, bitta pulemyotni va bitta britaniyalik Lyuis qurolini qo'lga oldilar.^[64] Ikki piyoda qo'shinlari Esseks polki, 161-chi (Essex) brigadasi, 54-chi (Sharqiy Angliya) diviziyasi Hadrah ko'prigidan o'tib, qishloqni egallab oldi.^[63] Oklendda o'rnatilgan otishma polkining 4-va 11-otryadlari Vellingtonda o'rnatilgan otishma polkining 2-eskadrilyasi bilan ko'prikka va Shayx Muannis qishlog'iga piyoda postlari oldida joylashtirildi. Kanterberidagi otishma polkining 1-eskadrilyasi dengiz sohilida post oldi; bu otryadlarning har birida ularni mustahkamlash uchun ikkita avtomat bor edi.^[64]

25-noyabr soat 02:45 da Xurbet Hadra yaqinida Usmonli otliq patrulini a qo'shin 3-otryad Oklendga o'rnatilgan miltiq polkining. Bir soat ichida Usmonli 3-chi va 7-chi diviziya eskadronga og'ir hujum uyushtirdi va u oldindan belgilangan qatorga chiqib ketdi. Faqat 30 daqiqadan so'ng yana chekinishga majbur bo'ldi.^[63][65] Taxminan soat 08:00 da Xurbet Xadrahdagi 54-chi (Sharqiy Angliya) diviziyaning piyoda qo'shinlariga daryo ortiga qaytish buyurildi. Bu juda qiyin operatsiya edi, chunki ko'prik endi dushmanning otishmasiga aylanib, artilleriya tomonidan doimiy ravishda o'qqa tutildi. Ba'zi odamlar ko'prikdan o'tishga muvaffaq bo'lishdi; kimdir daryoni suzib, kimdir g'arq bo'ldi. Piyoda askarlari aniq bo'lgach, 3-otryad, Oklend otliq otashin polki ularni ko'prik bo'ylab kuzatib bordi. 11-(Shimoliy Oklend) otryad (Oklendga o'rnatilgan otishma polki) ularni ikkitadan qopladi Vikers qurollari juda katta xarajat evaziga 11:00 gacha ko'prikni ushlab turishda davom etishdi.^[66]

Hadra ko'prigi uchun kurash olib borilayotgan bir paytda, 2-otryad, shayx Muannisdagi Vellington otliq otash polki hech qanday artilleriya yordamisiz to'xtatib qo'ydi va aniq artilleriya o'qi bilan qoplangan 2000 ga yaqin Usmonli askarlari tomonidan aniq hujum uyushtirildi. Ularning otlari daryodan plyajdagi fordga qaytarib yuborilgach, Yangi Zelandiya otliqlar brigadasi eskadrilyalari Xurbet Hadra mavqeini mustahkamlash uchun harakat qilishdi, ammo chekinish yuz berayotgan paytda etib kelishdi. Ular ko'prik yaqinidagi janubiy sohilda joylashdilar. Xurbet Hadrah qishlog'i va ko'prik postlari evakuatsiya qilinganidan keyingina Somerset batareyasi harakatga kela oldi va unga qurollar yordam berdi. 161-chi (Essex) brigadasi. Ushbu qo'llab-quvvatlash juda kech bo'ldi va ford yaqinidagi Shayx Muannisdagi piyoda askarlarga ham nafaqaga chiqishga buyruq berildi. Ularni Somerset akkumulyatori qo'llab-quvvatladi, ular Usmonli armiyasi qishloqni qayta ishg'ol qilgunga qadar, daryoning janubiy tomonida 1400 yard (1,3 km) janubidagi pozitsiyadan otishni davom ettirdilar. 10-otryadning ikki qo'shini shayx Muannis yaqinidagi qirg'oqqa qarab asta-sekin iste'foga chiqdilar, 2-eskadro va piyoda askarlar daryoni qayiq orqali va tegirmonda g'alati boshdan o'tib ketishdi. Usmonlilarning hujumi endi Kanterberidagi otishma polkida to'plangan edi. 1-eskadra polk va shayx Muannisning qo'shinlari fordni kesib o'tguncha dushmanni ushlab turdi, so'ng otryad pulemyotlardan yopiq olov ostida orqaga qaytdi. Ushbu operatsiya davomida Yangi Zelandiyadagi otishma brigadasidan talafotlar 11 kishi halok bo'ldi, 45 kishi yaralandi va uch kishi bedarak yo'qoldi.^[67][68]

25-noyabrdan 1-dekabrgacha Yangi Zelandiyadagi otliqlar brigadasi forst-liniyani ushlab turishda davom etgan 54-chi (Sharqiy Angliya) diviziyasini qo'llab-quvvatladi. Dekabr oyi boshida, Yaffa shahridan bir necha mil shimolda Sarona yaqinidagi dam olish lageriga olib ketildi, 5 yanvargacha Yahudiya tepaliklari etaklaridagi Imperial Camel Corps Brigade-ni bo'shatdi.^[69][70]

Bu vaqtda Usmonli sakkizinchi armiyasining jangovar qo'mondoni Fridrix Frayherr Kress fon Kressenshteyn vazifasidan ozod qilindi. U 1914 yil 27 sentyabrdan Sinay va Falastinda bo'lib, ikki armiyani va Sinay yarim oroli bo'ylab reyd uyushtirgan guruhni boshqarib, Britaniya imperiyasiga qarshi muvaffaqiyatsiz hujum qildi. Suvaysh kanali 1915 yil yanvar oyida, soat Romani 1916 yil avgustda va juda muvaffaqiyatli Katiyaga reyd 1916 yil aprelda. Keyinchalik u mudofaaga buyruq berdi Magdhaba 1916 yil dekabrda, soat Rafa 1917 yil yanvarda, G'azo va Beershebada 1917 yil mart, aprel va oktyabr oylarida va orqa qo'riqchilarning janglari paytida 1917 yil noyabrida dengiz tekisligidan Yaffaga ko'tarildi. Uning o'rnini brigada generali egalladi Djevad Posho.^[71] Ushbu xabarni eshitgan Allenbi 1917 yil 28-noyabrda xotiniga shunday deb yozgan edi: "Men xayol qilamanki, Turk va Boche o'rtasida hozircha muhabbat yo'qolgan".^[72]

Usmonlilarning qarshi hujumlari

Fon Falkenxayn va Usmonli armiyasi oyning boshidan buyon kurashib, ilgarilab borayotgan Britaniya imperiyasining bo'linmalarining zaiflashgan va tükenmiş holatidan foyda ko'rishga intildilar.^[73]

Beersheba-dan avans paytida ta'minotdagi muammolar tufayli Allenbi o'z faoliyatini davom ettirdi Filipp V. Xetvod Orqa tarafdagi XX korpus aloqa liniyalariga yaqin.^[5-eslatma] Ushbu qo'shinlar 10 kunlik orqa qismida dam olishdan zavqlanishdi, u erda ular osonlik bilan ta'minlandi va to'ldirildi. Aynan XX korpusning yangi qo'shinlari Yahudiy tepaligida mudofaa qilinayotgan Usmonli ettinchi armiyasiga qarshi oldingi operatsiyalar uchun mas'uliyatni o'z zimmalariga olishga buyurdilar. The 60-divizion (London), general-mayor buyurgan Jon Shea, Latronga 23-noyabr kuni etib kelgan Huj va 28-noyabr kuni 52-chi (pasttekislik) va 75-diviziyalarda jiddiy zaiflashgan piyoda askarlarni jangovar qobiliyatini pasaytirmasdan ozod qildi. Xuddi shu kuni, 74-bo'lim (Yeomaniya), general-mayor E. S. Girdvud qo'mondonligi bilan Karmdan Latronga etib keldi. Ikki kundan keyin 10-chi (Irlandiya) divizioni, general-mayor J. R. Longli qo'mondonligi bilan ham Karmdan Latronga etib keldi. Korpus otliq polki va og'ir batareyasi biriktirilgan 53-chi (Welsh) diviziyasi, Bosh shtabning (GHQ) to'g'ridan-to'g'ri buyrug'i bilan kelib, Beersheba shimolidagi Xevron yo'lida qoldi; ular Mottning otryadi deb nomlanishdi.^[52]

27-noyabrdan boshlangan bir hafta mobaynida Usmonli armiyasi bir qator piyoda hujumlarni uyushtirdi zarba taktikasi qo'shinlarni kuchaytirish va olib chiqish natijasida vujudga kelgan beqarorlik davrida ingliz chizig'ini buzish umidida.^[73] Nebi Samveyl va Zaytun platosida Yahudiya tepaliklarida Usmonli 16 va 19-bo'linmalari tomonidan qarshi hujumlar uyushtirildi. Dengiz tekisligidagi ingliz qo'shinlari bilan Yahudiya tepaliklaridagi bo'shliq orqali va shuningdek, dengiz tekisligida tarqalgan bir nechta ingliz birliklariga qarshi Britaniya aloqa liniyalariga qarshi hujumlar uyushtirildi.^[74]

Dengiz tekisligidagi qarshi hujumlar

1917 yil 27-noyabrda Vilgelmadagi 4-Northemptonshir polkiga turk hujumi

27-noyabr kuni soat 17:00 da Usmonli sakkizinchi armiyasining 16-diviziyasi qarshi hujumni boshladi Vilgelma dengiz tekisligida. Ular 4-batalyonda piyodalardan 400 yard (370 m) yaqinlikda, Northemptonshir polki Vilgelma va uning atrofida joylashtirilgan. Ular shuningdek, 10-batalyonga qarshi oldinga siljishdi, London polki, janubi-sharqiy at Deyr Tuvayf, 5-batalyonga qarshi, Bedfordshir polki, da Bayt Nebala va qarshi Imperial Camel Corps Bald Hilldagi brigada.^[75][76] Vilgelmada Usmonli kuchlari süngülü hujum qilishga tayyorlanishdi, ammo 272-brigada bilan pulemyot va Lyuis qurol o'q otdi. Qirollik dala artilleriyasi ularni ushlab turdi.^[6-eslatma] Inglizlar ikkala qanotda ham muvaffaqiyatli hujumga o'tdilar va Usmonli qo'shinlarini Rantyega chekinishga majbur qildilar.^[75] Toz tepaligidan janubi g'arbda Imperial Tuya Korpusi brigadasining chap tomonida Usmonli 16-diviziya bo'linmalari 28-noyabrga o'tar kechasi hujumni qayta boshlashdi. Ular 2-yengil otlar brigadasi old chizig'ining o'ng zastavalarida haydashdi va o'zlarini ushbu oldinga surib qo'yishdi. But at dawn on 29 November the Ottoman soldiers found themselves in an untenable position—overlooked by one Australian post and enfiladed by others on either flank. Unable to advance or retreat, three officers and 147 troops with four machine guns surrendered to the 7th Light Horse Regiment.^[77]

Counterattacks on British Empire lines of communication

Further inland, another serious attack was made on the British lines of communication from Ramleh by units of both the Ottoman 16th Division on the plain and the 19th Division in the hills. The aim of this counterattack was the destruction of two British Empire divisions in the hills by cutting their lines of communication.^[78]

Raising water from a well in the hills west of Jerusalem in December 1917

This attack was made by exploiting a 5-mile (8.0 km) gap in the British front line between the thinly spread Yeomanry Mounted Division's left at Beit Ur el Tahta and the right of the equally thinly spread infantry in the 54th (East Anglian) Division at Shilta. The Ottoman 19th Division found the gap on 27 November and attacked the exposed supply line, defeating a section of the Yeomanry Mounted Division's Ammunition Column and overwhelming a post on the right of the 54th (East Anglian) Division. The 7th Mounted Brigade was ordered forward into the gap in the line. They were attacked by the fresh Ottoman 19th Division at dawn on 28 November, but blocked a further attack by other Ottoman units.^[79][80]

After some desperate fighting in close action, pressure eased somewhat and some lost ground was recovered, but the Ottoman force began to outflank the mounted brigade to the west.^[81][82] The 5th Battalion, Norfolk Regiment were driven out of Shilta, but infantry from the 155th (South Scottish) Brigade of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, in the process of being relieved, returned to the front, closed the gap, and pushed the Ottoman soldiers back out of the lines of communication.^[80]

Counterattacks on the Yeomanry Mounted Division

Detail of Ottoman counterattack on morning of 28 November 1917

Ottoman counterattacks began on 27 November, when the Yeomanry Mounted Division's most advanced post at Zeitun on the western end of the Beytuniya Ridge was attacked by a much larger force. They held off the Ottoman attackers until 28 November, when the division was forced to withdraw from their advanced posts, including Sheik Abu ex Zeitun and Beit Ur el Foqa.^[82]

The Australian Mounted Division (less the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade) had been resting at Mejdel from 19 to 27 November when they were ordered to return to the Judean Hills. The 4-engil otlar brigadasi ga yurish Berfilya was diverted straight on to Beit Ur el Tahta.^[83] South of Beit Ur el Tahta, the 4th Light Horse Brigade covered a dangerous position, as there was no contact between the 8th and 6th Mounted Brigades.^[84] The 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade was ordered to rejoin its division, leaving the 10th Light Horse Regiment under orders of the 60th (2/2nd London) Division. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade marched on to Berfilya 2 miles (3.2 km) west of el Burj.^{[85][7-eslatma]}

Ottoman counterattacks 1800 28 November 1917

The pressure had been too great for the advance posts of the much-reduced Yeomanry Mounted Division, which fell back down the Wadi Zeit but the pursuing Ottoman force was suddenly blocked by the 11th Light Horse Regiment of 4th Light Horse Brigade.^[86] The 4th Light Horse Brigade had moved by the same route as the 7th Mounted Brigade, but near El Burj they found the road blocked by fire. Brigadier General Grant, reporting to Barrow, ordered the brigade south of Beit Ur el Tahta to support the 6th Mounted Brigade. The 11th Light Horse Regiment was pushed forward with two machine guns to hold Wadi Zeit south west of Beit Ur el Foqa.^[86]

On 30 November Major J.G. Rees of the 25th Battalion, Royal Welch Fusiliers had only 60 men to hold Beit Ur el Foqa when the post was almost surrounded. They managed to break out of the position and joined the support company of the 10th Battalion, Qirolning Shropshir yengil piyoda askarlari covering Et Tire and facing Signal Hill, which became the focus of the next Ottoman attack. This came at 14:30 when they attacked with 400 soldiers, driving the detachment from Signal Hill. This move made Et Tire untenable and forced the 10th King's Shropshire Light Infantry to fall back to its original line.^{[87][8-eslatma]}

These operations were supported on 28 November by a combined force of the British and Australian Nos. 1 and 111 Squadrons, which attacked the Tul Keram aerodrome with aerial bombing. This attack was repeated the following morning and evening after German planes bombed the Julis aerodrome and hit No. 113 Squadron's orderly room.^[88]

The Yeomanry Mounted Division was relieved by the 74th (Yeomanry) Division; two brigades of infantry were substituted for four brigades of cavalry resulting in a sixfold increase in the number of rifles. With additional reinforcements from the dismounted Australian Mounted Division, there were sufficient troops to hold all Ottoman counterattacks.^[89]

Counterattack on 1 December at Beit Ur el Tahta

Hong Kong (Indian) mountain gun battery in action near Beit Ur el Tahta

At about 01:00 on 1 December a battalion of the Ottoman 19th Division, armed with hand grenades, launched attacks at Beit Ur el Tahta against the 157th Brigade, and north east of El Burj against the 3rd Light Horse Brigade.^[90] After two attempts at Beit Ur el Tahta, they succeeded in driving a severely weakened infantry company of the 5th Battalion, Highland Light piyoda askarlari, 52nd (Lowland) Division, off 200 yards (180 m) of the ridge in front of the village, but by 04:30 they had reoccupied the position. The 8th Light Horse Regiment north east of El Burj withstood four onslaughts by enemy forces armed with tayoq granatalar. Ning bir otryad Royal Gloucestershire Hussars of the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade, attached to the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was rushed up to fill gaps in the line, and the Hong Kong Battery came into action. They were reinforced by the 4th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers with a small group of bombers from Bayt Sira, which arrived just as Ottoman soldiers launched a new assault. The British bombing party attacked Ottoman bombers and after a fierce engagement forced them back. The Ottomans continued desperately to attack and another company of the 4th Scots Fusiliers came up. Combined with the steady fire of the dismounted 3rd Light Horse Brigade, the shower of bomba from the Fusiliers forced the Ottoman soldiers to fall back and dig in. At dawn they surrendered.^{[91][9-eslatma]}

In these engagements it is claimed that a whole Ottoman battalion was captured or killed.^[90] Over 100 Ottoman soldiers were killed. Among the 172 prisoners were many wounded, while the British losses were under 60.^[92] It had been a crucial battle; if El Burj had been captured the British would have lost the use of the road leading up from Berfilya, and the Beit Nuba–Beit Sira valley would have become untenable. The left flank of the infantry's main advance on Jerusalem would have been exposed, which would have also weakened the pressure being exerted towards the Nablus road.^[93]

Counterattack on 1 December at Nebi Samwil

Further attacks on Nebi Samwill on 1 December were repulsed, with the Ottoman Seventh Army suffering heavy losses.^[94]

Quddusni qo'lga kiritish

By 1 December the fighting for Jerusalem was almost over. The Ottoman Army had failed to win any ground as a result of their counterattacks, and the advancing British troops were successfully replacing their tired comrades who were well entrenched close to Jerusalem.^[96] On 2 December the relief of the XXI Corps by the XX Corps was completed when the 10th (Irish) Division relieved the 52nd (Lowland) Division.^[92][94] And each side began to adjust and improve their lines, leaving insecure or hard to defend places. The British increased the number of soldiers in their line to create a powerful concentration. Over four days the 10th (Irish) and 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions extended their positions, while the extended position held by the 60th (2/2nd London) Division was shortened.^[96][97]

On 3 December, the 16th Battalion Devonshir polki, 229-brigada, 74th (Yeomanry) Division recaptured Beit Ur el Foqa. This infantry attack was launched from the head of the Wadi Zeit at 01:00, and by 03:30 the village had been captured, along with 17 prisoners and three machine guns.^[98] The position was impossible to hold, as it was overlooked by Ottoman positions on higher ground. Bombing and hand-to-hand fighting continued all morning, and the battalion withdrew, suffering 300 casualties.^[92] It has been claimed that on 3 December the Ottoman Army had abandoned their counterattacks and that fighting in the Judean Hills ceased.^[73][92]

Mott's Detachment

Meanwhile, on the Hebron to Bethlehem road south of Jerusalem, the 53rd (Welsh) Division (known as Mott's Detachment) had continued their tentative advance to arrive 4.5 miles (7.2 km) south of Hebron on 4 December. After two Australian light armoured cars of the Light Armoured Motor Battery (LAMB) drove in from the north reporting no Ottoman units in Hebron, they continued on to the Dilbe valley that night.^{[99][100][10-eslatma]}

Model T Ford Utility manned by Australian soldiers and armed with Vickers .303 machine gun mounted on a tripod

Chetwode then ordered Mott to advance as quickly as possible to get into a position 3 miles (4.8 km) south of Jerusalem by the morning of 8 December. Mott's advanced guard again moved tentatively during the night of 5 December to 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Hebron.^[101] By 7 December Mott's Detachment had found touch with the Ottoman position defending Bethlehem 4 miles (6.4 km) from his objective, but bad weather prevented an advance.^[102] Mott's Detachment was to have advanced northwards in time to cover the right flank of the 60th (2/2nd London) Division and to cut the road from Jerusalem to Jericho.^[103] Despite being under direct orders of GHQ, Mott's Detachment was still on the Hebron road south of Bethlehem on 7 December. Mott managed to capture Sulaymonning hovuzlari to the south of Bethlehem by the evening of 7 December.^[104]

4th Battalion, Royal Sussex Regiment march through Bethlehem. Their infantry division; the 53rd (Welsh) Division occupied Bethlehem on night of 9 December

On the morning of 8 December, Ottoman artillery began firing on a road junction, which Mott's Detachment had to negotiate. Unable to advance or retaliate against the accurate shell fire from an Ottoman battery near Bethlehem, the detachment waited. At around noon, Chetwode, the corps' commander, ordered the detachment to get moving. Mott finally attacked his main objective at Beyt Jala at 16:00, but the Ottoman Army had already retired.^[52][105] It was not until the evening that they continued their advanced to find the way completely clear of Ottoman defenders. At the crucial moment, Mott's Detachment was unable to cover the southern flank of the 60th (London) Division, forcing the Londoners to pause during daylight, as enfilading fire would have made any advance extremely costly.^[106]

Quddusning taslim bo'lishi

The surrender of Jerusalem to the British, 9 December 1917

During almost continuous rain on 8 December, Jerusalem ceased to be protected by the Ottoman Empire.^[107][108] Chetwode (commander of XX Corps), who had relieved Bulfin (commander of XXI Corps), launched the final advance taking the heights to the west of Jerusalem on 8 December.^[107] The Ottoman Seventh Army retreated during the evening and the city surrendered the following day.^[109]

Allenby and parading Indian troops at Jaffa Gate, 11 December 1917, during official ceremonies after the capture of Jerusalem

The Quddus meri, Hussein Salim al-Husseini, attempted to deliver the Ottoman Governor's letter surrendering the city to Sergeants James Sedgewick and Frederick Hurcomb of 2/19th Battalion, London Regiment, just outside Jerusalem's western limits on the morning of 9 December 1917. The two sergeants, who were scouting ahead of Allenby's main force, refused to take the letter. It was eventually accepted by Brigadier General C.F. Watson, commanding the 180-chi (2/5 London) brigada.^[110]

Jerusalem was almost encircled by the EEF, although Ottoman Army units briefly held the Mount of Olives on 9 December. They were overwhelmed by the 60th (2/2nd London) Division the following afternoon.^[111]

Text of surrender

Diagram of Allenby's Entry into Jerusalem 11 Dec 1917, in The Times

The surrender ceremony of the city of Jerusalem, in front of the Tower of David.

"Due to the severity of the siege of the city and the suffering that this peaceful country has endured from your heavy guns; and for fear that these deadly bombs will hit the holy places, we are forced to hand over to you the city through Hussein al-Husseini, the mayor of Jerusalem, hoping that you will protect Jerusalem the way we have protected it for more than five hundred years." The decree was signed by Izzat, the Mutasarrif Quddus.^[112]

Natijada

"Jerusalem Captured", in The Times, 11 Dec 1917

On 11 December, two days after the official surrender and exactly six weeks after the fall of Beersheba, Allenby (commander of the EEF) made his formal entry into Jerusalem on foot through the Jaffa gate instead of by horse or vehicles to show his great respect for the holy place.^[107][111]

Among the mounted units to accompany Allenby on his formal entrance into Jerusalem were the 10th Light Horse Regiment and a New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade representative troop commanded by 2nd Lieutenant C.J. Harris, Canterbury Regiment.^{[113][114][115]} The New Zealand troop was made up of one sergeant and 10 men from the Auckland Regiment, nine men from the Canterbury Regiment, and nine men from the Wellington Regiment, with three men from the Machine Gun Squadron and one from the Signal Troop – a total of one officer and 33 other ranks.^[115]

Bu vaqtda 12-engil ot polk was in the Judean Hills on the front line near Kuddis, where the disposition of the Ottoman defenders was static and quiet, but observant. From 12 December the regiment was working to extend a sangar and enjoyed fresh meat, bread, vegetables, and rum. On 17 December bivouac sheets and blankets arrived. The weather continued cold and showery, but the good rations and extra blankets and bivouac shelters lifted morale.^[116]

Indian sentry of Vonning 58-miltiqlari qo'riqlaydi Tosh gumbazi

The British Empire had received the Christmas present the Prime Minister had wanted to give them, along with the moral prestige of effecting a Christian control of Jerusalem. It was a huge blow to the Ottoman Empire, which had suffered the loss of yet another Muslim Holy Place (having already lost Makka va Bag'dod ).^[117]

First British guard at the Jaffa Gate

During the fighting advance to Jerusalem from Beersheba and Gaza, the total British Empire casualties were 18,000, with the Ottoman suffering 25,000 casualties. British casualties during the Battle of Jerusalem from 25 November to 10 December were 1,667. In the same period 1,800 Ottoman prisoners were taken.^[118]

Eleven Ottoman infantry divisions had been forced to retire, suffering 28,443 casualties; some 12,000 prisoners were captured, 100 guns, and scores of machine guns were also captured. Now the Ottoman Army needed to deploy troops from other theatres to make up for these significant losses.^[119] On 15 December the Ottoman 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division arrived in Palestine and became the reserve of the XXII Corps before taking part in the counterattacks of 27 December. The 1st Infantry Division arrived from the Caucasus and moved to Nablus in reserve.^[71] A significant consequence of the Ottoman Empire's firm focus on the Levant was that the British recapture of Baghdad and the British offensive in Mesopotamia became more viable and secure.^[119]

Strategik qarorlar

The camp of the 94th Heavy Battery on Mt Scopus after they helped capture Jerusalem

It is clear in a letter written to his wife on the day of his ceremonial entry into Jerusalem that Allenby was keeping a close eye on the evolving situation: "The Turks are driven 3 or 4 miles down the Jericho road, to the East; and some 6 or 8 Miles to the North. Today we occupied Bethany."^[120]

Just before the capture of Jerusalem, the British War Office had been very worried about Allenby's extended advance and warned of a possible retirement back to Gaza and Beersheba if the war on the Western Front dictated the transfer of large numbers of troops from the Levant. This attitude changed immediately after Jerusalem was captured. The War Office then wanted to know how Allenby might exploit his success with the addition of a division from Mesopotamia.^[121]

Allenby's great strategic successes from the end of October 1917 brought pressure from the British War Office to quickly finish the war in the Middle East. The War Cabinet instructed Robertson to telegraph Allenby on 18 December with a project based on alternative policies –

• (a) To complete the conquest of the whole of Palestine between Dan and Beersheba and hold the country for the remainder of the war
• (b) To continue the advance through Palestine and Syria to the vicinity of Aleppo so as to cause permanent interruption of railway communication with Mesopotamia.

Robertson requested that Allenby should send his "views as soon as possible as to the execution of these policies" and the length of time needed for the operations.^[123]

Allenby replied on 20 December 1917:

• (a) ... I calculate I might be able by June or July to place force of my present strength north of Nazareth–Haifa line, assuming enemy cannot oppose me with more than about 60,000 fighting strength and provided there are no special difficulties met with in railway construction.
• (b) To advance further towards Aleppo would mean to move against Damascus and Beirut. On that front enemy is served by broad–gauge railway with good lateral communications and apparently ideal ground for defence. Broad–gauge railway would put him on level with me as regards numbers that could be maintained. I should require 16 or 18 divisions besides my mounted corps to ensure success against Damascus–Beirut line if strongly held, but this is probably more than my railway could support. My estimate is made on the supposition enemy will make use of his broad-gauge railway to its full capacity. I would point out that Aleppo is 350 miles distant and my single line of railway advances about half a mile a day. Railhead of my double line is at Bir el Mazar, but the doubling of railway has had to be stopped during my present advance. For my immediate plans see my telegram No. E.A. 598 14 December, and I think it advisable before advancing much further north to clear Turkish forces on Medina railway."^[124]

Allenby had reported on 14 December that the rainy season would stop a renewal of operations for at least two months.^[125]

Second attack across the Nahr el Auja – Battle of Jaffa

Falls' Sketch Map 20 Passage of the Nahr el 'Auja

Allenby needed to establish a defensive line running from the Mediterranean Sea which could be held with reasonable security once his right flank was secured on the Dead Sea.^[126] In order to consolidate a strong British Empire line, it was necessary to push the 3rd and 7th Infantry Divisions of the Ottoman Eighth Army back away from the Nahr el Auja 4 miles (6.4 km) north of Jaffa on the Mediterranean coast.^[27] The first attempt was made on 24 to 25 November and this second engagement in the same area became officially designated by the British as a subsidiary battle during the Jerusalem Operations.^{[2][11-eslatma]}

Three infantry divisions of the XXI Corps began moving their units into position on the coastal plain on 7 December. The 75th Division was on the right with the 54th (East Anglian) Division in the centre and the 52nd (Lowland) Division on the coast.^[127][128] Piyoda qo'shinlari 162-chi (East Midland) brigadasi, 11-dekabr kuni Yangi Zelandiyadagi otishma brigadasini oldingi safda bo'shatdi va Nahr el-Aujani qo'lga olish uchun avvalgi urinishda qattiq qatnashgan otliq miltiqchilar Ayun Qora yaqinidagi bivuakka qaytib ketishdi.^{[129][12-eslatma]}

Military operations resumed a fortnight after the surrender of Jerusalem with the final attack of this campaign.^[130] But preparations were complicated by the sodden state of the low and swampy ground on the southern banks of the Nahr el Auja where the attack would be launched. And the river was swollen by rain which had fallen on 19 and 20 December. Kimdan Mulebbis to the sea the river is between 40–50 feet (12–15 m) wide and 10–12 feet (3.0–3.7 m) deep except for the ford at the mouth of the river known as Sheik Muanis. To the north of the river two prominent spurs run down to the river from a series of sandy ridges. These overlooked the damaged stone bridge at Khurbet Hadrah to the east and the village of Sheik Muannis, yaqin Jerisheh to the west where a mill dam bridged the stream.^[131][132] The Ottoman Eighth Army held strong commanding positions covering all the places used by the attackers in November. They held both spurs in addition to a post opposite the ford at the mouth of the Nahr el Auja. They also held a line extending east of Khurbet Hadrah which crossed to the south bank of the river to include Bald Hill and Mulebbis.^[128]

All three infantry brigades of the 52nd (Lowland) Division managed to cross the River Auja on the night of 20–21 December. It is claimed that by morning they had secured the Ottoman defensive line, completely surprising the defenders who surrendered without firing a shot.^[131][133] Temporary bridges were built so the infantry's artillery could cross the river. On 23 December the 52nd (Lowland) and 54th (East Anglian) Divisions moved up the coast a further 5 miles (8.0 km), while the left of the advance reached Arsuf 8 miles (13 km) north of Jaffa, capturing key Ottoman defensive positions. They were supported by guns on British warships.^[134] Three hundred prisoners were captured and many Ottomans were killed with bayonets, while the British infantry suffered 100 casualties.^{[135][13-eslatma]}

Quddus mudofaasi

Officially recognised by the British as one of three battles which made up the "Jerusalem Operations", along with the Battle of Nebi Samwil and the subsidiary Battle of Jaffa, this engagement occurred a month after the Ottoman armies had launched their counterattacks; between 26 and 30 December 1917.^[2] The XX Corps' infantry divisions, the 10th (Irish), the 60th (2/2nd London), and the 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions with support from infantry in the 53rd (Welsh) Division fought the Seventh Ottoman Army's III Corps' 24th, 26th and 53rd Divisions.^[136]

Falls' Sketch Map 21: Defence of Jerusalem. Situation on 30 December 1917 at 1800

Allenby's troops march through Jaffa street.

After the evacuation of Jerusalem by the Ottoman Seventh Army, the British XX Corps held a line which ran across the Jerusalem to Jericho and Jerusalem to Nablus roads 4 miles (6.4 km) north and east of Jerusalem. This line continued to the west through the hills to Beit Ur el Foka and Suffa.^[127] Jerusalem was still within range of Ottoman artillery and with the opposing sides in such close proximity there was still the risk of counterattack. An offensive to push the Ottoman Army further northwards was planned for 24 December 1917, but was delayed due to bad weather.^[137]

In a letter to the War Office, Allenby had written on 4 December of his desire to capture Bireh.^[95] The plan now was for infantry from the 60th (2/2nd London) Division to advance north astride the Jerusalem to Nablus road with infantry from the 74th (Yeomanry) Division advancing eastwards from Beit Ur el Foka to converge on the Bireh-Ramalla ridge.^[138]

Dead Ottoman soldiers at Tel el Ful in 1917

The British were prepared for battle when an Ottoman Army counterattack was launched at 01:30 on 27 December, which fell on the infantry from the 179-chi (2/4 London) brigada, 60th (2/2nd London) Division, on the Nablus road.^[139][140] The Ottoman force's initial objectives were a line of villages, including Nebi Samweil 1 mile (1.6 km) in front of their starting positions.^[141] They were focused towards Tell el Ful, a hill east of the Nablus road about 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Jerusalem defended by the 60th (2/2nd London) Division. This Ottoman attack on Tell el Ful initially drove the British outposts back and captured several important places. The engagement continued for two days and was ultimately unsuccessful.^[139]

Also during the morning of 27 December the British infantry from the 10th (Irish) and the 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions advanced about 4000 yds (4000 m) on a front of 6 miles (9.7 km).^[142] And the next day Chetwode, commander of XX Corps, ordered infantry in the 10th (Irish) Division to attack towards Ramalloh.^[139]

The 60th (2/2nd London) Division took El Jib, Er Ram va Rafat while the 53rd (Welsh) Division covered their left. The 74th (Yeomanry) Division captured Beitunia and the 10th (Irish) Division pushed to the east of Ayn Arik. With Ottoman and German machine guns hard to locate amongst the boulders, the fighting was severe and stubborn.^[143] On 29 November the 60th (2/2nd London) and 74th (Yeomanry) Divisions were joined by the 53rd (Welsh) Division.^[139][144] A general British infantry advance on a 12-mile (19 km) front moved their front line 6 miles (9.7 km) on the right and 3 miles (4.8 km) on the left.^[142] They pushed the whole line along the Nablus yo'li to beyond Ramallah and Bireh by 30 December.^[139][144] Final objectives were gained and the line along the whole front secured.^[143]

The Ottoman Army lost over 1,000 casualties and 750 prisoners; the British infantry captured 24 machine guns and three automatic rifles.^{[142][14-eslatma]}

Summation of campaign

Jaffa to Jerusalem train climbing the Judean hills east of Lidda 1947 yilda

The newly established, strategically strong defensive British line remained in place until mid September 1918 when the advance to Damascus and Aleppo, which ended the war in this theatre, took place. It stretched across from the Mediterranean coast in the west to north and east of Jerusalem. The line was extended during the middle of February 1918 when Jericho in the Jordan Valley was captured and the eastern end of the line was secured on the Dead Sea.^[145]

The enormous territorial gains of the Palestine offensive contrasted with the British Expeditionary Force's offensive on the G'arbiy front da Kambrai. Fought in Flanders from 20 to 30 November, it ended with heavy losses and no gains.^[15-eslatma] The French army was still recovering from a serious isyon, the Italians were defeated at the Kaporetto jangi va Rossiya was out of the war following the Bolsheviklar inqilobi. Allenby's advance by comparison made considerable territorial gains, helped secure Baghdad and the oilfields at Basra in Mesopotamia, encouraged the Arab Revolt, and inflicted irreplaceable losses on the Ottoman Army.^[133]

The EEF's campaign from October to December 1917 resulted in a military defeat of a Central Power, which led to a substantial loss of enemy territory. In particular the fighting from 31 October to 7 November against the Ottoman Gaza–Sheria–Beersheba line resulted in the first defeat of entrenched, experienced and, up until then, successful Ottoman armies which were supported by artillery, machine guns and aircraft. During these attacks the Ottoman defenders were well established in trenches, redoubts and other fortifications, requiring a "Western Front"-style of battle, as the attackers were forced to approach over open ground.^[146]

Nyu-York Herald front page on 11 December 1917 at the end of the Battle of Jerusalem. The mention of "673 years" is in reference to the continued rule of Muslims starting in 1244 under the Xrizmiylar sulolasi.

Sporadic fighting continued in the hills surrounding Jerusalem.^[147] On Christmas Day, Falkenhayn launched another counter assault, which was repulsed with heavy losses.^[147] Some British newspapers and magazines, including Irlandiya yangiliklari, claimed it as the end of the crusades.^[148] A US newspaper also made reference to the Crusades, specifically the Nyu-York Herald (see picture), referring to the last time Jerusalem was under non-Muslim rule in 1244 AD when a Khwarezmian army under Al-Salih Ayyub, defeated the Franks. The secular groups of the Italian politics characterized the victory as a crusade but giving secular and contemporary meanings to this term: he military episode was considered part of the Entente's crusade in the name of freedom and civilization against the cruelty of the German "Kultur", a widely spread image of the Great War propaganda based on the demonization of the enemy.^[149] With different approaches, the Italian Catholic clergy and laity appeared generally reluctant to explicitly use of the ideology of crusade due to theological and doctrinal reasons: the conquest of Jerusalem was part of the just war conducted by the Entente, but it could not be considered like a step or the conclusion of a crusade.^[150]

Britain would hold Jerusalem until the end of Majburiy Falastin 1948 yilda.

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